MRP4 is responsible for the efflux transport of mycophenolic acid ß-d glucuronide (MPAG) from hepatocytes to blood.

Mycophenolic acid (MPA) has become a cornerstone of immunosuppressive therapy, in particular for transplant patients. In the gastrointestinal tract, the liver and the kidney, MPA is mainly metabolized into phenyl-ß-d glucuronide (MPAG). Knowledge about the interactions between MPA/MPAG and membrane transporters is still fragmented. The aim of the present study was to explore these interactions with the basolateral hepatic MRP4 transporter. The inhibition of the MRP4-driven transport by various drugs which can be concomitantly prescribed was also evaluated. In vitro experiments using vesicles overexpressing MRP4 showed an ATP-dependent transport of MPAG driven by MRP4 (Michaelis-Menten constant of 233.9 ± 32.8 µM). MPA was not effluxed by MRP4. MRP4-mediated transport of MPAG was inhibited (from -43% to -84%) by ibuprofen, cefazolin, cefotaxime and micafungin. An in silico approach based on molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations rationalized the mode of binding of MPAG to MRP4. The presence of the glucuronide moiety in MPAG was highlighted as key, being prone to make electrostatic and H-bond interactions with specific residues of the MRP4 protein chamber. This explains why MPAG is a substrate of MRP4 whereas MPA is not.

MemCross: Accelerated Weight Histogram method to assess membrane permeability.

Passive permeation events across biological membranes are determining steps in the pharmacokinetics of xenobiotics. To reach an accurate and rapid prediction of membrane permeation coefficients of drugs is a complex challenge, which can efficiently support drug discovery. Such predictions are indeed highly valuable as they may guide the selection of potential leads with optimum bioavailabilities prior to synthesis. Theoretical models exist to predict these coefficients. Many of them are based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, which allow calculation of permeation coefficients through the evaluation of both the potential of mean force (PMF) and the diffusivity profiles. However, these simulations still require intensive computational efforts, and novel methodologies should be developed and benchmarked. Free energy perturbation (FEP) method was recently shown to estimate PMF with a significantly reduced computational cost compared to the adaptive biasing force method. This benchmarking was achieved with small molecules, namely short-chain alcohols. Here, we show that to estimate the PMF of bulkier, drug-like xenobiotics, conformational sampling is a critical issue. To reach a sufficient sampling with FEP calculations requires a relatively long time-scale, which can lower the benefits related to the computational gain. In the present work, the Accelerated Weight Histogram (AWH) method was employed for the first time in all-atom membrane models. The AWH-based protocol, named MemCross, appears affordable to estimate PMF profiles of a series of drug-like xenobiotics, compared to other enhanced sampling methods. The continuous exploration of the crossing pathway by MemCross also allows modeling subdiffusion by computing fractional diffusivity profiles. The method is also versatile as its input parameters are largely insensitive to the molecule properties. It also ensures a detailed description of the molecule orientations along the permeation pathway, picturing all intermolecular interactions at an atomic resolution. Here, MemCross was applied on a series of 12 xenobiotics, including four weak acids, and a coherent structure-activity relationship was established.