Staged treatment response in status epilepticus: Lessons from the SENSE registry.

OBJECTIVES: Although in epilepsy patients the likelihood of becoming seizure-free decreases substantially with each unsuccessful treatment, to our knowledge this has been poorly investigated in status epilepticus (SE). We aimed to evaluate the proportion of SE cessation and functional outcome after successive treatment steps. METHODS: We conducted a post hoc analysis of a prospective, observational, multicenter cohort (Sustained Effort Network for treatment of Status Epilepticus [SENSE]), in which 1049 incident adult SE episodes were prospectively recorded at nine European centers. We analyzed 996 SE episodes without coma induction before the third treatment step. Rates of SE cessation, mortality (in ongoing SE or after SE control), and favorable functional outcome (assessed with modified Rankin scale) were evaluated after each step. RESULTS: SE was treated successfully in 838 patients (84.1%), 147 (14.8%) had a fatal outcome (36% of them died while still in SE), and 11 patients were transferred to palliative care while still in SE. Patients were treated with a median of three treatment steps (range 1-13), with 540 (54.2%) receiving more than two steps (refractory SE [RSE]) and 95 (9.5%) more than five steps. SE was controlled after the first two steps in 45%, with an additional 21% treated after the third, and 14% after the fourth step. Likelihood of SE cessation (p < 0.001), survival (p = 0.003), and reaching good functional outcome (p < 0.001) decreased significantly between the first two treatment lines and the third, especially in patients not experiencing generalized convulsive SE, but remained relatively stable afterwards. SIGNIFICANCE: The significant worsening of SE prognosis after the second step clinically supports the concept of RSE. However, and differing from findings in human epilepsy, RSE remains treatable in about one third of patients, even after several failed treatment steps. Clinical judgment remains essential to determine the aggressiveness and duration of SE treatment, and to avoid premature treatment cessation in patients with SE.

Continuous versus Routine Electroencephalography in the Intensive Care Unit: A Review of Current Evidence.

BACKGROUND: Electroencephalography (EEG) has long been used to detect seizures in patients with disorders of consciousness. In recent years, there has been a drastically increased adoption of continuous EEG (cEEG) in the intensive care units (ICUs). Given the resources necessary to record and interpret cEEG, this is still not available in every center and widespread recommendations to use continuous instead of routine EEG (typically lasting 20 min) are still a matter of some debate. Considering recent literature and personal experience, this review offers a rationale and practical advice to address this question. SUMMARY: Despite the development of increasingly performant imaging techniques and several validated biomarkers, EEG remains central to clinicians in the intensive care unit and has been experiencing expanding popularity for at least 2 decades. Not only does EEG allow seizure or status epilepticus detection, which in the ICU often present without clinical movements, but it is also paramount for the prognostic evaluation of comatose patients, especially after cardiac arrest, and for detecting delayed ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage. At the end of the last Century, improvements of technical and digital aspects regarding recording and storage of EEG tracings have progressively led to the era of cEEG and automated quantitative analysis. KEY MESSAGES: As compared to repeated rEEG, cEEG in comatose patients does not seem to improve clinical prognosis to a relevant extent, despite allowing a more performant of detection ictal events and consequent therapeutic modifications. The choice between cEEG and rEEG must therefore always be patient-tailored.

Relevance of Continuous EEG versus Routine EEG for Outcome Prediction after Traumatic Brain Injury.

INTRODUCTION: In a cohort of adult patients with disturbance of consciousness after TBI, we aimed to explore the relationship of continuous video-EEG (cEEG) versus routine EEG (rEEG) with mortality and functional outcome. METHODS: This is a post hoc analysis of a randomized controlled trial (CERTA), in which adults with disorder of consciousness and needing EEG (excluding those with proven seizures/SE just before) were randomized 1:1 to cEEG or two rEEG. In TBI patients, correlation between EEG duration, mortality, and modified Rankin score (mRs, good 0-2) at 6 months was assessed. RESULTS: Among 364 patients, 44 presenting with consciousness impairment after TBI were included; 29 randomized to cEEG and 15 to rEEG. Mortality (p = 0.88) and functional outcome (p = 0.58) at 6 months were similar between groups. There was a nonsignificant tendency toward more seizure/status epilepticus detection with cEEG (p = 0.08). In multivariable regression, cEEG was not related to functional outcome (OR: 0.75 [0.13-4.24], p = 0.745) or mortality (OR: 7.11 [0.51-99.32], p = 0.145). CONCLUSION: Despite allowing increased seizure detections in TBI patients, cEEG does not seem to be associated with better functional outcome or mortality over rEEG. Pending larger trials, repeated rEEG might be acceptable in post-TBI disorder of consciousness, especially in resource-limited environments.

[Neurology: what's new in 2022]. / Neurologie : ce qui a changé en 2022.

The year 2022 was marked by the development of numerous new treatments for refractory myasthenia gravis. The link between epilepsy and cerebrovascular disorder was studied and lamotrigine discovered to be the optimal treatment choice for epilepsy secondary to stroke to prevent mortality on patient of 45 years and older. New randomized study finally demonstrated the utility of thrombectomy in selected patients with basilar artery occlusion. The causal relationship between Epstein-Barr infection and multiple sclerosis has been proved thanks to a large cohort study. A new possibility of subcutaneous continuous levodopa administration gave promising result. Finally, numerous studies confirmed the efficacy and excellent tolerability of anti-CGRP antibodies.

L'année 2022 a été marquée par l'arrivée de nombreux traitements pour la myasthénie réfractaire. Le lien entre l'épilepsie et le risque cérébro-vasculaire a été bien étudié, démontrant que la lamotrigine semble être le meilleur traitement pour prévenir la mortalité chez les patients de 45 ans et plus. De nouvelles études ont enfin pu établir l'utilité de la thrombectomie dans les occlusions basilaires. Le lien entre le virus d'Epstein-Barr et la sclérose en plaques a pu être prouvé à la suite d'une importante étude de cohorte. Une nouvelle technique d'administration sous-cutanée de la lévodopa semble prometteuse. Enfin, de nombreuses études confirment l'efficacité et l'excellente tolérance des anticorps anti-CGRP (Calcitonine Gene Related Protein).

Continuous Versus Routine Standardized Electroencephalogram for Outcome Prediction in Critically Ill Adults: Analysis From a Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate electroencephalogram (EEG) features' relation with mortality or functional outcome after disorder of consciousness, stratifying patients between continuous EEG and routine EEG. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Multiple adult ICUs. PATIENTS: Data from 364 adults with acute disorder of consciousness, randomized to continuous EEG (30-48 hr; n = 182) or repeated 20-minute routine electroencephalogram (n = 182). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Correlations between electrographic features and mortality and modified Rankin scale at 6 months (good 0-2) were assessed. Background continuity, higher frequency, and reactivity correlated with survival and good modified Rankin scale. Rhythmic and periodic patterns carried dual prognostic information: lateralized periodic discharges were associated with mortality and bad modified Rankin scale. Generalized rhythmic delta activity correlated with survival, good modified Rankin scale, and lower occurrence of status epilepticus. Presence of sleep-spindles and continuous EEG background was associated with good outcome in the continuous EEG subgroup. In the routine EEG group, a model combining background frequency, continuity, reactivity, sleep-spindles, and lateralized periodic discharges was associated with mortality at 70.91% (95% CI, 59.62-80.10%) positive predictive value and 63.93% (95% CI, 58.67-68.89%) negative predictive value. In the continuous EEG group, a model combining background continuity, reactivity, generalized rhythmic delta activity, and lateralized periodic discharges was associated with mortality at 84.62% (95%CI, 75.02-90.97) positive predictive value and 74.77% (95% CI, 68.50-80.16) negative predictive value. CONCLUSIONS: Standardized EEG interpretation provides reliable prognostic information. Continuous EEG provides more information than routine EEG.

Long-term efficacy, tolerability, and retention of brivaracetam in epilepsy treatment: A longitudinal multicenter study with up to 5 years of follow-up.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to evaluate the long-term efficacy, retention, and tolerability of add-on brivaracetam (BRV) in clinical practice. METHODS: A multicenter, retrospective cohort study recruited all patients who initiated BRV between February and November 2016, with observation until February 2021. RESULTS: Long-term data for 262 patients (mean age = 40 years, range = 5-81 years, 129 men) were analyzed, including 227 (87%) diagnosed with focal epilepsy, 19 (7%) with genetic generalized epilepsy, and 16 (6%) with other or unclassified epilepsy syndromes. Only 26 (10%) patients had never received levetiracetam (LEV), whereas 133 (50.8%) were switched from LEV. The length of BRV exposure ranged from 1 day to 5 years, with a median retention time of 1.6 years, resulting in a total BRV exposure time of 6829 months (569 years). The retention rate was 61.1% at 12 months, with a reported efficacy of 33.1% (79/239; 50% responder rate, 23 patients lost-to-follow-up), including 10.9% reported as seizure-free. The retention rate for the entire study period was 50.8%, and at last follow-up, 133 patients were receiving BRV at a mean dose of 222 ± 104 mg (median = 200, range = 25-400), including 52 (39.1%) who exceeded the recommended upper dose of 200 mg. Fewer concomitant antiseizure medications and switching from LEV to BRV correlated with better short-term responses, but no investigated parameters correlated with positive long-term outcomes. BRV was discontinued in 63 (24%) patients due to insufficient efficacy, in 29 (11%) for psychobehavioral adverse events, in 25 (10%) for other adverse events, and in 24 (9%) for other reasons. SIGNIFICANCE: BRV showed a clinically useful 50% responder rate of 33% at 12 months and overall retention of >50%, despite 90% of included patients having previous LEV exposure. BRV was well tolerated; however, psychobehavioral adverse events occurred in one out of 10 patients. Although we identified short-term response and retention predictors, we could not identify significant predictors for long-term outcomes.

EEG patterns associated with present cortical SSEP after cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: After cardiac arrest (CA), present cortical somatosensory evoked potentials (N20 response of SSEPs) have low predictive value for good outcome and might be redundant with EEG. AIMS: To determine whether specific features, or rather global, standardized EEG assessments, are reliably associated with cortical SSEP occurrence after cardiac arrest (CA). METHODS: In a prospective CA registry, EEGs recorded within 72 hours were scored according to the ACNS nomenclature, and also categorized into "benign," "malignant," and "highly malignant." Correlations between EEGs and SSEPs (bilaterally absent vs present), and between EEGs/SSEPs and outcome (good: CPC 1-2) were assessed. RESULTS: Among 709 CA episodes, 532 had present N20 and 366 "benign EEGs." While EEG categories as well as background, epileptiform features, and reactivity differed significantly between patients with and without N20 (each P < .001), only "benign EEG" was almost universally associated with present N20: 99.5% (95%CI: 97.9%-99.9%) PPV. The combination of "benign EEG" and present N20 showed similar PPV for good outcome as "benign" EEG alone: 69.0% (95% CI: 65.2-72.4) vs 68.6% (95% CI: 64.9-72.0). CONCLUSION: Global EEG ("benign") assessment, rather than single EEG features, can reliably predict cortical SSEP occurrence. SSEP adjunction does not increase EEG prognostic performance toward good outcome. SSEP could therefore be omitted in patients with "benign EEG."

Acute Valproate-Induced Encephalopathy in Status Epilepticus: A Registry-Based Assessment.

BACKGROUND: Valproate-induced encephalopathy (VIE) affects between 0.1% and 2.5% of patients under long-term epilepsy treatment. Its frequency and characteristics in adults with status epilepticus (SE) is, however, unknown. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to characterize the frequency and the clinico-biological characteristics of VIE in adult SE patients. METHODS: We reviewed all patients included in our institutional SE registry who were treated for an SE episode between November 2021 and February 2023 and identified 39 patients who received valproate for their SE treatment. Acute VIE was defined by worsening of consciousness having led to the discontinuation of valproate, and improvement of consciousness within 96 hours after discontinuation of valproate during acute hospital treatment. RESULTS: Patients had a mean valproate intravenous loading dose of 34.5 mg/kg and a mean maintenance dose of 15.3 mg/kg/d (1078 mg/d). Four out of 29 patients with measured ammonium had hyperammonemia. We identified four (10%) patients fulfilling acute VIE criteria. Median time from administration of valproate to the occurrence of VIE, and to resolution of VIE after cessation of valproate treatment, was 2 days for each. Three of the four VIE patients had no associated hyperammonemia. Patients who developed VIE more frequently had a history of liver disease (p = 0.023), and tended to be younger, but other clinical variables did not differ significantly from patients without VIE, including valproate loading or maintenance doses, SE cause, duration or severity, other concomitant antiseizure medications (none received topiramate, phenobarbital, or primidone). CONCLUSION: Pending larger studies, VIE in SE seems relatively frequent and difficult to foresee; clinical alertness to symptoms is mandatory, even without hyperammonemia, and valproate withdrawal should be considered in suspected cases.

Clonazepam Loading Dose in Status Epilepticus: Is More Always Better?

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Benzodiazepines are the first treatment line in status epilepticus (SE). Despite their well-established benefit, benzodiazepines are frequently underdosed with potential detrimental consequences. In some European countries, clonazepam (CLZ) is commonly used as the first line treatment. The aim of this study was to explore the correlation between CLZ loading doses and SE outcome. METHODS: This study included a retrospective analysis of a prospective registry in Lausanne, Switzerland (CHUV Lausanne University Hospital), including all SE episodes treated between February 2016 and February 2021. Only adults (> 16 years old) were included with CLZ used as the first treatment line. Post-anoxic SE were excluded because of significant differences in physiopathology and prognosis. Patient characteristics, SE features, the validated SE severity score (STESS), and treatment characteristics were prospectively recorded. We considered loading doses of 0.015 mg/kg or higher (following commonly recommended loading doses) as high doses. We analyzed outcome in terms of number of treatment lines after the CLZ, proportion of refractory episodes, intubation for airways protection, intubation for SE treatment, and mortality. We performed univariable analyses to investigate the association between loading doses and clinical response. A multivariable stepwise backward binary logistic regression was applied for adjusting for potential confounders. Multivariable linear regression was similarly used to analyze CLZ dose as a continuous variable. RESULTS: We collected 251 SE episodes in 225 adult patients. Median CLZ loading dose was 0.010 mg/kg. CLZ high doses were used in 21.9% of SE episodes (in 43.8% for > 80% of the high dose). Thirteen percent of patients with SE were intubated for airways control, while intubation was needed in 12.7% for SE treatment. High CLZ loading doses were independently associated with younger age (median 62 versus 68 years old, p = 0.002), lesser weight (65 kg versus 75 kg, p = 0.001) and more frequent intubation for airways protection (23% vs 11%, p = 0.013), but differing CLZ dose was not associated with any outcome parameter. CONCLUSION: CLZ high doses were more frequently used for SE treatment in younger patients with healthy weight and were more often associated with intubation for airways protection, probably as an adverse event. Varying CLZ dose did not alter outcome in SE, raising the possibility that commonly recommended doses are above what is needed, at least in some patients. Our results suggest that CLZ doses in SE may be individualized depending on the clinical setting.

Outcome of comatose patients following cardiac arrest: When mRS completes CPC.

AIM: Good outcome in patients following cardiac arrest (CA) is usually defined as Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) 1-2, while CPC 3 is debated, and CPC 4-5 represent poor outcome. We aimed to assess when the modified Rankin Scale (mRS) can improve CPC outcome description, especially in CPC 3. We further aimed to correlate neuron specific enolase (NSE) with both functional measures to explore their relationship with neuronal damage. METHODS: Peak NSE within the first 48 hours, and CPC and mRS at 3 months were prospectively collected for 665 consecutive comatose adults following CA treated between April 2016 and April 2023. For each CPC category, mRS was described. We considered good outcome as mRS 1-3, in line with existing recommendations. CPC and mRS were correlated to peak serum NSE using non-parametric assessments. RESULTS: CPC 1, 2, 4 and 5 correlated almost perfectly with mRS in terms of good and poor outcomes. However, CPC 3 was heterogeneously associated to the dichotomized mRS (53.1% had good outcome (mRS 0-3), 46.9% poor outcome (mRS 4-6)). NSE was strongly correlated with CPC (Spearman's rho 0.616, P < 0.001) and mRS (Spearman's rho 0.613, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: CPC and mRS correlate similarly with neuronal damage. Whilst CPC 1-2 and CPC 4-5 are strongly associated with mRS 0-3 and, respectively, with mRS 5-6, CPC 3 is heterogenous: both good and poor mRS scores are found within this category. Therefore, we suggest that the mRS should be routinely assessed in patients with CPC 3 to refine outcome description.

EEG findings in CAR T-cell-associated neurotoxicity: Clinical and radiological correlations.

BACKGROUND: While EEG is frequently reported as abnormal after chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, its clinical significance remains unclear. We aim to systematically describe EEG features in a large single-center cohort and correlate them with clinical and radiological findings. METHODS: We retrospectively identified patients undergoing CAR T-cell therapy who had continuous EEG. Neurotoxicity grades, detailed neurological symptoms, and brain MRI or FDG-PET were obtained. Correlation between clinical and radiological findings and EEG features was assessed. RESULTS: In 81 patients with median neurotoxicity grade 3 (IQR 2-3), diffuse EEG background slowing was the most common finding and correlated with neurotoxicity severity (P <.001). A total of 42 patients had rhythmic or periodic patterns, 16 of them within the ictal-interictal-continuum (IIC), 5 with clinical seizures, and 3 with only electrographic seizures. Focal EEG abnormalities, consisting of lateralized periodic discharges (LPD, n = 1), lateralized rhythmic delta activity (LRDA, n = 6), or focal slowing (n = 19), were found in 22 patients. All patients with LRDA, LPD, and 10/19 patients with focal slowing had focal clinical symptoms concordant with these EEG abnormalities. In addition, these focal EEG changes are often correlated with PET hypometabolism or MRI hypoperfusion, in absence of a structural lesion. CONCLUSION: In adult patients experiencing neurotoxicity after CAR T-cell infusion, EEG degree of background disorganization correlated with neurotoxicity severity. IIC patterns and focal EEG abnormalities are frequent and often correlate with focal clinical symptoms and with PET-hypometabolism/MRI-hypoperfusion, without structural lesion. The etiology of these findings remains to be elucidated.

Refractory Status Epilepticus: Risk Factors and Analysis of Intubation in the Multicenter SENSE Registry.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Refractory status epilepticus (RSE) bears significant morbidity and mortality. Therapy escalation and in some cases intubation are recommended. Most existing studies are retrospective and focus on intensive care units. We aimed to describe routine-care management and analyze determinants of RSE development and outcomes in a large multicenter cohort. METHODS: We performed post hoc analysis of an observational, cohort study, which prospectively registered all consecutive adults with SE at 9 centers from 3 central European countries. Only incident episodes were included. Ongoing SE despite 2 antiseizure medications was defined as RSE. Patients intubated during first-line or second-line treatments were excluded. Variables investigated included demographics, severity (Status Epilepticus Severity Score), etiology, and guideline-compliant treatment (defined as fixed minimum doses). Outcome parameters included survival and mRS at baseline, and discharge (good: 0-2, or absence of worsening compared with prehospitalization). RESULTS: Among 1,179 SE episodes from 1,049 adults, 996 patients were eligible (median age: 70 years, 52% female), of which 545 (54.7%) developed RSE. RSE was associated with higher baseline mRS (p < 0.001) and treatment deviation from guidelines (p < 0.001, OR 0.09; 95% CI 0.06-0.1). Good outcomes were observed in 52.7% of refractory patients, correlating with lower status epilepticus severity (p < 0.001), absence of acute etiology (p < 0.001, OR 0.5; 95% CI 0.3-0.7), adequate first-line benzodiazepine dose (p < 0.001, OR 2.5; 95% CI 1.6-4.0), shorter durations of SE and hospitalization (both p < 0.001), and lack of intubation (p < 0.001, OR 0.4; 95% CI 0.3-0.6). Most (71.7%) refractory patients were not intubated. Intubation was associated with younger age (p = 0.006), more severe consciousness disturbances (p < 0.001, OR 3.2; 95% CI 2.1-4.8), more severe SE types (p < 0.001), higher severity score (p = 0.009), acute etiologies (p = 0.01, OR 1.6; 95% CI 1.1-2.4), more antiseizure medications (p < 0.001), initial treatment after shorter latency (p = 0.01), worse outcomes (p < 0.001, OR 0.4; 95% CI 0.4-0.6), and longer hospitalizations (p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Variables associated with RSE were identified, some potentially preventable. More than 70% of RSE were treated without intubation, suggesting that focal RSE without deep impairment of consciousness, in older patients, may be successfully treated outside ICUs. TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION: Original cohort study registered at the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS00000725).

Repetitive Electroencephalography as Biomarker for the Prediction of Survival in Patients with Post-Hypoxic Encephalopathy.

Predicting survival in patients with post-hypoxic encephalopathy (HE) after cardiopulmonary resuscitation is a challenging aspect of modern neurocritical care. Here, continuous electroencephalography (cEEG) has been established as the gold standard for neurophysiological outcome prediction. Unfortunately, cEEG is not comprehensively available, especially in rural regions and developing countries. The objective of this monocentric study was to investigate the predictive properties of repetitive EEGs (rEEGs) with respect to 12-month survival based on data for 199 adult patients with HE, using log-rank and multivariate Cox regression analysis (MCRA). A total number of 59 patients (29.6%) received more than one EEG during the first 14 days of acute neurocritical care. These patients were analyzed for the presence of and changes in specific EEG patterns that have been shown to be associated with favorable or poor outcomes in HE. Based on MCRA, an initially normal amplitude with secondary low-voltage EEG remained as the only significant predictor for an unfavorable outcome, whereas all other relevant parameters identified by univariate analysis remained non-significant in the model. In conclusion, rEEG during early neurocritical care may help to assess the prognosis of HE patients if cEEG is not available.

Benzodiazepines in the Management of Seizures and Status Epilepticus: A Review of Routes of Delivery, Pharmacokinetics, Efficacy, and Tolerability.

Status epilepticus (SE) is an acute, life-threatening medical condition that requires immediate, effective therapy. Therefore, the acute care of prolonged seizures and SE is a constant challenge for healthcare professionals, in both the pre-hospital and the in-hospital settings. Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are the first-line treatment for SE worldwide due to their efficacy, tolerability, and rapid onset of action. Although all BZDs act as allosteric modulators at the inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor, the individual agents have different efficacy profiles and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, some of which differ significantly. The conventional BZDs clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam and midazolam differ mainly in their durations of action and available routes of administration. In addition to the common intravenous, intramuscular and rectal administrations that have long been established in the acute treatment of SE, other administration routes for BZDs-such as intranasal administration-have been developed in recent years, with some preparations already commercially available. Most recently, the intrapulmonary administration of BZDs via an inhaler has been investigated. This narrative review provides an overview of the current knowledge on the efficacy and tolerability of different BZDs, with a focus on different routes of administration and therapeutic specificities for different patient groups, and offers an outlook on potential future drug developments for the treatment of prolonged seizures and SE.

Prospective evaluation of interrater agreement between EEG technologists and neurophysiologists.

We aim to prospectively investigate, in a large and heterogeneous population, the electroencephalogram (EEG)-reading performances of EEG technologists. A total of 8 EEG technologists and 5 certified neurophysiologists independently analyzed 20-min EEG recordings. Interrater agreement (IRA) for predefined EEG pattern identification between EEG technologists and neurophysiologits was assessed using percentage of agreement (PA) and Gwet-AC1. Among 1528 EEG recordings, the PA [95% confidence interval] and interrater agreement (IRA, AC1) values were as follows: status epilepticus (SE) and seizures, 97% [96-98%], AC1 kappa = 0.97; interictal epileptiform discharges, 78% [76-80%], AC1 = 0.63; and conclusion dichotomized as "normal" versus "pathological", 83.6% [82-86%], AC1 = 0.71. EEG technologists identified SE and seizures with 99% [98-99%] negative predictive value, whereas the positive predictive values (PPVs) were 48% [34-62%] and 35% [20-53%], respectively. The PPV for normal EEGs was 72% [68-76%]. SE and seizure detection were impaired in poorly cooperating patients (SE and seizures; p < 0.001), intubated and older patients (SE; p < 0.001), and confirmed epilepsy patients (seizures; p = 0.004). EEG technologists identified ictal features with few false negatives but high false positives, and identified normal EEGs with good PPV. The absence of ictal features reported by EEG technologists can be reassuring; however, EEG traces should be reviewed by neurophysiologists before taking action.

EEG patterns and their correlations with short- and long-term mortality in patients with hypoxic encephalopathy.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the association between electroencephalographic (EEG) patterns and overall, short- and long-term mortality in patients with hypoxic encephalopathy (HE). METHODS: Retrospective, mono-center analysis of 199 patients using univariate log-rank tests (LR) and multivariate cox regression (MCR). RESULTS: Short-term mortality, defined as death within 30-days post-discharge was 54.8%. Long-term mortality rates were 69.8%, 71.9%, and 72.9%, at 12-, 24-, and 36-months post-HE, respectively. LR revealed a significant association between EEG suppression (SUP) and short-term mortality, and identified low voltage EEG (LV), burst suppression (BSP), periodic discharges (PD) and post-hypoxic status epilepticus (PSE) as well as missing (aBA) or non-reactive background activity (nrBA) as predictors for overall, short- and long-term mortality. MCR indicated SUP, LV, BSP, PD, aBA and nrBA as significantly associated with overall and short-term mortality to varying extents. LV and BSP were significant predictors for long-term mortality in short-term survivors. Rhythmic delta activity, stimulus induced rhythmic, periodic or ictal discharges and sharp waves were not significantly associated with a higher mortality. CONCLUSION: The presence of several specific EEG patterns can help to predict overall, short- and long-term mortality in HE patients. SIGNIFICANCE: The present findings may help to improve the challenging prognosis estimation in HE patients.

MRI-EEG correlation for outcome prediction in postanoxic myoclonus: A multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prognostic ability of the combination of EEG and MRI in identifying patients with good outcome in postanoxic myoclonus (PAM) after cardiac arrest (CA). METHODS: Adults with PAM who had an MRI within 20 days after CA were identified in 4 prospective CA registries. The primary outcome measure was coma recovery to command following by hospital discharge. Clinical examination included brainstem reflexes and motor activity. EEG was assessed for best background continuity, reactivity, presence of epileptiform activity, and burst suppression with identical bursts (BSIB). MRI was examined for presence of diffusion restriction or fluid-attenuated inversion recovery changes consistent with anoxic brain injury. A prediction model was developed using optimal combination of variables. RESULTS: Among 78 patients, 11 (14.1%) recovered at discharge and 6 (7.7%) had good outcome (Cerebral Performance Category < 3) at 3 months. Patients who followed commands were more likely to have pupillary and corneal reflexes, flexion or better motor response, EEG continuity and reactivity, no BSIB, and no anoxic injury on MRI. The combined EEG/MRI variable of continuous background and no anoxic changes on MRI was associated with coma recovery at hospital discharge with sensitivity 91% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.59-1.00), specificity 99% (95% CI, 0.92-1.00), positive predictive value 91% (95% CI, 0.59-1.00), and negative predictive value 99% (95% CI, 0.92-1.00). CONCLUSIONS: EEG and MRI are complementary and identify both good and poor outcome in patients with PAM with high accuracy. An MRI should be considered in patients with myoclonus showing continuous or reactive EEGs.

Newer Antiepileptic Drugs for Status Epilepticus in Adults: What's the Evidence?

Status epilepticus (SE) is one of the most frequent neurological emergencies. Despite this, understanding of its pathophysiology and evidence regarding its management is limited. Rapid, effective, and well-tolerated treatment to achieve seizure cessation is advocated to prevent brain damage or potentially lethal outcomes. The last two decades have witnessed an exponential increase in the number of available antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). These compounds, especially lacosamide and levetiracetam, in view of their intravenous formulation, have been increasingly prescribed in SE. These and other newer AEDs present a promising profile in terms of tolerability, with few centrally depressive effects, favorable pharmacokinetic properties, and fewer drug interactions than classical AEDs; conversely, they are more expensive. There is still no clear evidence to suggest a specific beneficial impact of newer AEDs on SE outcome, preventing any strong recommendation regarding their prescription in SE. Further comparative studies are urgently required to clarify their place and optimal use in the armamentarium of SE treatment.

Does continuous EEG influence prognosis in patients after cardiac arrest?

AIM: Electroencephalography (EEG) is a key modality for assessment of prognosis following cardiac arrest (CA); however, whether continuous EEG (cEEG) is superior to routine intermittent EEG (rEEG) remains debated. We examined the impact of cEEG (>18 h) vs. rEEG (<30 min) on outcome in comatose CA patients as part of multimodal prognostication. METHODS: We analysed a large prospective registry of comatose post-CA adults (n = 497; 2009-2018), stratified based on whether they received cEEG (n = 62) or rEEG (n = 435), including standardized reactivity testing at two time-points. The primary endpoint was the impact of cEEG vs. rEEG on Glasgow-Pittsburgh Cerebral Performance Categories (CPC) at three months; we also assessed impact on time to death. RESULTS: Main patients' baseline clinical characteristics and CPC scores were comparable between the EEG groups. By multivariable analysis age, non-shockable rhythm, presence of early myoclonus, absent EEG background reactivity, absent somato-sensory evoked potentials, and serum NSE were independently associated with poor neurological outcome (CPC 3-5), while the EEG approach had no impact on patient prognosis and time to death. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that cEEG does not confer any advantage over intermittent rEEG regarding outcome in patients with CA, and does not influence the time to death.