Metformin induction of heat shock factor 1 activation and the mitochondrial unfolded protein response alleviate cardiac remodeling in spontaneously hypertensive rats.

Heart failure and cardiac remodeling are both characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction. Healthy mitochondria are required for adequate contractile activity and appropriate regulation of cell survival. In the mammalian heart, enhancement of the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) is cardioprotective under pressure overload conditions. We explored the UPRmt and the underlying regulatory mechanism in terms of hypertension-induced cardiac remodeling and the cardioprotective effect of metformin. Male spontaneously hypertensive rats and angiotensin II-treated neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were used to induce cardiac hypertrophy. The results showed that hypertension induced the formation of aberrant mitochondria, characterized by a reduced mtDNA/nDNA ratio and swelling, as well as lower levels of mitochondrial complexes I to V and inhibition of the expression of one protein subunit of each of complexes I to IV. Such changes eventually enlarged cardiomyocytes and increased cardiac fibrosis. Metformin treatment increased the mtDNA/nDNA ratio and regulated the UPRmt, as indicated by increased expression of activating transcription factor 5, Lon protease 1, and heat shock protein 60, and decreased expression of C/EBP homologous protein. Thus, metformin improved mitochondrial ultrastructure and function in spontaneously hypertensive rats. In vitro analyses revealed that metformin reduced the high levels of angiotensin II-induced mitochondrial reactive oxygen species in such animals and stimulated nuclear translocation of heat shock factor 1 (HSF1). Moreover, HSF1 small-interfering RNA reduced the metformin-mediated improvements in mitochondrial morphology and the UPRmt by suppressing hypertrophic signals and cardiomyocyte apoptosis. These results suggest that HSF1/UPRmt signaling contributes to the beneficial effects of metformin. Metformin-mediated targeting of mitochondrial protein homeostasis and modulation of HSF1 levels have potential therapeutic implications in terms of cardiac remodeling.

Acetylcholine attenuated TNF-α-induced intracellular Ca2+ overload by inhibiting the formation of the NCX1-TRPC3-IP3R1 complex in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) forms discrete junctions with the plasma membrane (PM) that play a critical role in the regulation of Ca2+ signaling during cellular bioenergetics, apoptosis and autophagy. We have previously confirmed that acetylcholine can inhibit ER stress and apoptosis after inflammatory injury. However, limited research has focused on the effects of acetylcholine on ER-PM junctions. In this work, we evaluated the structure and function of the supramolecular sodium-calcium exchanger 1 (NCX1)-transient receptor potential canonical 3 (TRPC3)-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 (IP3R1) complex, which is involved in regulating Ca2+ homeostasis during inflammatory injury. The width of the ER-PM junctions of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was measured in nanometres using transmission electron microscopy and a fluorescent probe for Ca2+. Protein-protein interactions were assessed by immunoprecipitation. Ca2+ concentration was measured using a confocal microscope. An siRNA assay was employed to silence specific proteins. Our results demonstrated that the peripheral ER was translocated to PM junction sites when induced by tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and that NCX1-TRPC3-IP3R1 complexes formed at these sites. After down-regulating the protein expression of NCX1 or IP3R1, we found that the NCX1-mediated inflow of Ca2+ and the release of intracellular Ca2+ stores were reduced in TNF-α-treated cells. We also observed that acetylcholine attenuated the formation of NCX1-TRPC3-IP3R1 complexes and maintained calcium homeostasis in cells treated with TNF-α. Interestingly, the positive effects of acetylcholine were abolished by the selective M3AChR antagonist darifenacin and by AMPK siRNAs. These results indicate that acetylcholine protects endothelial cells from TNF-alpha-induced injury, [Ca2+]cyt overload and ER-PM interactions, which depend on the muscarinic 3 receptor/AMPK pathway, and that acetylcholine may be a new inhibitor for suppressing [Ca2+]cyt overload.

Reduction of Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Interactions by Acetylcholine Protects Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells From Hypoxia/Reoxygenation Injury.

OBJECTIVE: We explored the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria Ca(2+) cross talk involving voltage-dependent anion channel-1 (VDAC1)/glucose-regulated protein 75/inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 complex and mitofusin 2 in endothelial cells during hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R), and investigated the protective effects of acetylcholine. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Acetylcholine treatment during reoxygenation prevented intracellular and mitochondrial Ca(2+) increases and alleviated ER Ca(2+) depletion during H/R in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Consequently, acetylcholine enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential and inhibited proapoptotic cascades, thereby reducing cell death and preserving endothelial ultrastructure. This effect was likely mediated by the type-3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway. In addition, interactions among members of the VDAC1/glucose-regulated protein 75/inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 complex were increased after H/R and were associated with mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload and cell death. Inhibition of the partner of the Ca(2+) channeling complex (VDAC1 siRNA) or a reduction in ER-mitochondria tethering (mitofusin 2 siRNA) prevented the increased protein interaction within the complex and reduced mitochondrial Ca(2+) accumulation and subsequent endothelial cell death after H/R. Intriguingly, acetylcholine could modulate ER-mitochondria Ca(2+) cross talk by inhibiting the VDAC1/glucose-regulated protein 75/inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 complex and mitofusin 2 expression. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase siRNA diminished acetylcholine-mediated inhibition of mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload and VDAC1/glucose-regulated protein 75/inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor 1 complex formation induced by H/R. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that ER-mitochondria interplay plays an important role in reperfusion injury in the endothelium and may be a novel molecular target for endothelial protection. Acetylcholine attenuates both intracellular and mitochondrial Ca(2+) overload and protects endothelial cells from H/R injury, presumably by disrupting the ER-mitochondria interaction.

Acetylcholine inhibits tumor necrosis factor α activated endoplasmic reticulum apoptotic pathway via EGFR-PI3K signaling in cardiomyocytes.

Previous findings have shown that acetylcholine (ACh) decreased hypoxia-induced tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF α) production, thus protected against cardiomyocyte injury. However, whether and how ACh affects TNF α-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell apoptosis remain poorly defined. This study was aimed at determining the effect of ACh in H9c2 cells after TNF α stimulation. Presence of ER stress was verified using the ER stress protein markers glucose regulatory protein 78 (GRP78) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP). Cell apoptosis was shown by caspase-3 activation and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling. Exogenously administered ACh significantly decreased these TNF α-induced changes. Moreover, when the cells were exposed to nonspecific muscarinic receptor (M AChR) inhibitor atropine, methoctramine (M2 AChR inhibitor) or the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor AG1478, the cardioprotection elicited by ACh was diminished. Furthermore, the above effects were also blocked by M2 AChR or EGFR siRNA, indicating that EGFR transactivation by M2 AChR may be the major pathway responsible for the benefits of ACh. In addition, LY294002, a phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, displayed the similar trends as AG1478, suggesting that PI3K/Akt signaling may be the downstream of EGFR in ACh-elicited anti-apoptotic property. Together, these data indicate that EGFR-PI3K/Akt signaling is involved in M2 AChR-mediated ER apoptotic pathway suppression and the subsequent survival of H9c2 cardiomyocytes. We have identified a novel pathway underlying the cardioprotection afforded by ACh.

Acetylcholine Inhibits LPS-Induced MMP-9 Production and Cell Migration via the α7 nAChR-JAK2/STAT3 Pathway in RAW264.7 Cells.

BACKGROUND: Excessive activation of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) has been found in several inflammatory diseases. Previous studies have shown that acetylcholine (ACh) reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and decreased tissue damage. Therefore, this study was designed to explore the potential effects and mechanisms of ACh on MMP-9 production and cell migration in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation in RAW264.7 cells. METHODS: MMP-9 expression and activity were induced by LPS in RAW264.7 cells, and examined by real-time PCR, western blotting and gelatin zymography, respectively. ELISA was used to determine the changes in MMP-9 secretion among the groups. Macrophage migration was evaluated using transwell migration assay. Knockdown of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7 nAChR) expression was performed using siRNA transfection. RESULTS: Pre-treatment with ACh inhibited LPS-induced MMP-9 production and macrophage migration in RAW264.7 cells. These effects were abolished by the α7 nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine (MLA) and α7 nAChR siRNA. The α7 nAChR agonist PNU282987 was found to have an effect similar to that of ACh. Moreover, ACh enhanced the expression of JAK2 and STAT3, and the JAK2 inhibitor AG490 and the STAT3 inhibitor static restored the effect of ACh. Meanwhile, ACh decreased the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and this effect was abrogated in the presence of MLA. In addition, the JAK2 and STAT3 inhibitor abolished the inhibitory effects of ACh on phosphorylation of NF-κB. CONCLUSIONS: Activation of α7 nAChR by ACh inhibited LPS-induced MMP-9 production and macrophage migration through the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. These results provide novel insights into the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of ACh.

Acetylcholine protects mesenteric arteries against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury via inhibiting calcium-sensing receptor.

The Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaSR) plays an important role in regulating vascular tone. In the present study, we investigated the positive effects of the vagal neurotransmitter acetylcholine by suppressing CaSR activation in mesenteric arteries exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). The artery rings were exposed to a modified 'ischemia mimetic' solution and an anaerobic environment to simulate an H/R model. Our results showed that acetylcholine (10(-6) mol/L) significantly reduced the contractions induced by KCl and phenylephrine and enhanced the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine. Additionally, acetylcholine reduced CaSR mRNA expression and activity when the rings were subjected to 4 h of hypoxia and 12 h of reoxygenation. Notably, the CaSR antagonist NPS2143 significantly reduced the contractions but did not improve the endothelium-dependent relaxation. When a contractile response was achieved with extracellular Ca(2+), both acetylcholine and NPS2143 reversed the H/R-induced abnormal vascular vasoconstriction, and acetylcholine reversed the calcimimetic R568-induced abnormal vascular vasoconstriction in the artery rings. In conclusion, this study suggests that acetylcholine ameliorates the dysfunctional vasoconstriction of the arteries after H/R, most likely by decreasing CaSR expression and activity, thereby inhibiting the increase in intracellular calcium concentration. Our findings may be indicative of a novel mechanism underlying ACh-induced vascular protection.

Protective effects of extracts from Pomegranate peels and seeds on liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats.

BACKGROUND: Liver fibrosis is a feature in the majority of chronic liver diseases and oxidative stress is considered to be its main pathogenic mechanism. Antioxidants including vitamin E, are effective in preventing liver fibrogenesis. Several plant-drived antioxidants, such as silymarin, baicalin, beicalein, quercetin, apigenin, were shown to interfere with liver fibrogenesis. The antioxidans above are polyphenols, flavonoids or structurally related compounds which are the main chemical components of Pomegranate peels and seeds, and the antioxidant activity of Pomegranate peels and seeds have been verified. Here we investigated whether the extracts of pomegranate peels (EPP) and seeds (EPS) have preventive efficacy on liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) in rats and explored its possible mechanisms. METHODS: The animal model was established by injection with 50 % CCl4 subcutaneously in male wistar rats twice a week for four weeks. Meanwhile, EPP and EPS were administered orally every day for 4 weeks, respectively. The protective effects of EPP and EPS on biochemical metabolic parameters, liver function, oxidative markers, activities of antioxidant enzymes and liver fibrosis were determined in CCl4-induced liver toxicity in rats. RESULTS: Compared with the sham group, the liver function was worse in CCl4 group, manifested as increased levels of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and total bilirubin. EPP and EPS treatment significantly ameliorated these effects of CCl4. EPP and EPS attenuated CCl4-induced increase in the levels of TGF-ß1, hydroxyproline, hyaluronic acid laminin and procollagen type III. They also restored the decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities and inhibited the formation of lipid peroxidized products in rats treated with CCl4. CONCLUSION: The EPP and EPS have protective effects against liver fibrosis induced by CCl4, and its mechanisms might be associated with their antioxidant activity, the ability of decreasing the level of TGF-ß1 and inhibition of collagen synthesis.

Pyridostigmine ameliorates cardiac remodeling induced by myocardial infarction via inhibition of the transforming growth factor-ß1/TGF-ß1-activated kinase pathway.

Autonomic imbalance characterized by sympathetic predominance coinciding with diminished vagal activity is an independent risk factor in cardiovascular diseases. Several studies show that vagus nerve stimulation exerted beneficial effects on cardiac function and survival. In this study, we investigated the vagomimetic effect of pyridostigmine on left ventricular (LV) remodeling in rats after myocardial infarction. After myocardial infarction, surviving rats were treated with or without pyridostigmine (31 mg·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹) for 2 weeks, and hemodynamic parameters were measured. LV tissue was used to assess infarct size and interstitial fibrosis by Masson's trichrome and 0.1% picrosirius red staining. Protein expression of heart tissues was used to assess the efficacy of the treatment. Pyridostigmine markedly reduced myocardial infarct size and improved cardiac diastolic function. These improvements were accompanied with a significant decrease in matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression and collagen deposition. Additionally, pyridostigmine inhibited both transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) and TGF-ß1-activated kinase expression in hearts postmyocardial infarction. Thus, pyridostigmine reduces collagen deposition, attenuates cardiac fibrosis, and improves LV diastolic function after myocardial infarction via TGF-ß1/TGF-ß1-activated kinase pathway inhibition.

Delayed preconditioning prevents ischemia/reperfusion-induced endothelial injury in rats: role of ROS and eNOS.

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) strongly protects against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury; however, the molecular mechanism involved in delayed preconditioning-induced endothelial protection in peripheral arteries is unknown. Therefore, we examined using functional, morphologic and molecular biologic studies whether delayed IPC decreases formation of reactive oxygen species and upregulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) that in turn contributes to vascular endothelial protection. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 30-min ischemia induced by mesenteric artery occlusion followed by 60-min reperfusion 24 h after sham surgery or preconditioning (three cycles of 5-min ischemia/5-min reperfusion). Delayed preconditioning prevented the I/R-induced impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxations to acetylcholine (maximal relaxation: sham 91.4±2.2%; I/R 54.0±4.0%; IPC 80.2±6.3%). This protective effect was abolished by NOS inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester and not changed by ascorbic acid. Electron microscopy showed marked endothelial damage after I/R and the ultrastructural changes were prevented by delayed preconditioning. Following I/R, the impairment of eNOS phosphorylation and expression was observed in mesenteric vessels. Furthermore, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt phosphorylation were reduced, although total PI3K and Akt remained unchanged. IPC restored I/R-induced impairment of eNOS expression and activity. This was possibly the result of the recovery of PI3K/Akt phosphorylation. Furthermore, I/R increased serum level of malondialdehyde, intravascular superoxide and nitrotyrosine generation, which were abrogated by IPC. These results suggest that delayed preconditioning prevented I/R-induced endothelial injury in peripheral resistance vasculature, both in terms of functional and structural changes. Endothelial protection afforded by delayed IPC is associated with inhibition of oxidative stress and upregulation of PI3K/Akt/eNOS pathway.

Vagal stimulation triggers peripheral vascular protection through the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in a rat model of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion.

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) induces inflammatory response that may lead to remote vascular injury. Vagal nerve elicits the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway by activating α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChR). Nevertheless, the role of vagal nerve-mediated anti-inflammatory pathway in the vasculature has not been studied previously. Therefore, we aimed to clarify the potential role of vagal stimulation (VNS) in regulating remote vascular injury after myocardial I/R. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to VNS starting 15 min prior to ischemia until the end of reperfusion. VNS not only reduced infarct size and improved cardiac function, but also ameliorated myocardial I/R-induced dysfunctional vasoconstriction and vasodilatation and degradation of endothelial structure in mesenteric arteries. VNS decreased serum and vascular levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-1ß. Interestingly, in vivo microdialysis studies demonstrated that VNS increased ACh concentration in the mesenteric circulation. Furthermore, VNS up-regulated expressions of muscarinic ACh receptors-3 (M3AChR) and α7nAChR in mesenteric arteries. Preserved endothelial relaxations by VNS were inhibited by atropine or methyllycaconitine, indicating that functional protection was associated with M3 and α7nAChR activation. Finally, VNS increased STAT3 phosphorylation and inhibited NF-κB activation in mesenteric arteries, and these effects were abolished by α7nAChR shRNA treatment, indicating VNS-mediated anti-inflammatory effect mainly involved α7nAChR. These results demonstrated for the first time that VNS protected against remote vascular dysfunction, through the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway which is dependent on α7nAChR. Our findings represent a significant addition to the understanding of vagal nerve-mediated pathways and the potential roles they play in regulating the vasculature.

Role of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and vagal activity in the endothelial protection of atorvastatin in ischemia/reperfusion injury.

Vascular endothelial dysfunction plays a pivotal role in the development and maintenance of ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Statins, developed as lipid-lowering drugs, partially restore vagal activity and exhibit pleiotropic effects. This study was aimed at determining the effect of atorvastatin (ATV) on endothelial dysfunction in peripheral resistance arteries after I/R injury. After pretreatment with ATV (10 mg·kg·d) or its vehicle for 3 days, the superior mesenteric artery was occluded for 60 minutes and reperfusion for 90 minutes or the rats were anesthetized without being subjected to ischemia. In the ATV-treated I/R group, the increased contractions to KCl and 5-hydroxytryptamine induced by I/R were ameliorated, and attenuated endothelium-dependent relaxations to acetylcholine (ACh) were normalized. The restored relaxation to ACh was abolished by N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. ATV prevented the structural damage of vascular endothelial cells. Furthermore, the activities of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, Akt, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase were elevated in mesenteric arteries after ATV treatment. In addition, I/R-induced increment of endothelial cells apoptosis was also attenuated by ATV. Intriguingly, ATV also increased baroreflex sensitivity and serum ACh content after I/R. In conclusion, the endothelial protective effect of ATV in peripheral arteries is associated with the activated phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt/endothelial nitric oxide synthase pathway and restored vagal activity.

Low-dose celecoxib improves coronary function after acute myocardial ischaemia in rabbits.

The role of celecoxib in cardiovascular events remains contentious. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of celecoxib in acute myocardial ischaemia (AMI) in rabbits in comparison with those of another non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, namely aspirin. Male New Zealand white rabbits were divided into four groups: (i) a sham-operated group; (ii) an AMI group, in which the left anterior descending coronary arteries were occluded for 60 min; (iii) the celecoxib + AMI group, pretreated with 3 mg/kg celecoxib, twice a day, for 3 days before AMI induction; and (iv) the aspirin + AMI group, pretreated with 12.5 mg/kg aspirin, twice a day, for 3 days before AMI induction. Haemodynamic parameters were monitored using a multichannel physiological recorder. Serum levels of creatine kinase (CK), malondialdehyde (MDA), cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, total nitrate/nitrite (NO(x) ), nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and myocardial infarct size were determined. Changes in isometric tension of isolated coronary rings were recorded by a myograph system. Compared with the sham group, the AMI group had lower blood pressure, higher left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic pressure, depressed maximum dP/dt of LV pressure, a larger infarct size and higher CK and MDA levels. Celecoxib, but not aspirin, pretreatment significantly ameliorated these effects of AMI. Celecoxib reversed AMI-induced increases in COX-2 levels to a similar extent as aspirin. Pretreatment with celecoxib resulted in a significant reduction in TNF-α levels and an increase in NO(x) and NOS levels compared with the AMI group. The dysfunctional vasoconstriction and vasodilation of coronary arteries were ameliorated by celecoxib administration. 4. In conclusion, the experimental evidence suggests that celecoxib exerts its protective effects in a COX-independent manner.

[Progress in calcium regulation in myocardial and vascular ischemia-reperfusion injury].

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) has been recognized as a serious problem for therapy of cardiovascular diseases. Calcium regulation appears to be an important issue in the study of IRI. This article reviews calcium regulation in myocardial and vascular IRI, including the calcium overload and calcium sensitivity in IRI. This review is focused on the key players in Ca(2+) handling in IRI, including membrane damage resulting in increase in Ca(2+) influx, reverse-mode of Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchangers leading to increased Ca(2+) entry, the decreased activity of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+)-ATPase causing SR Ca(2+) uptake dysfunction, and increased activity of Rho kinase. These key players in Ca(2+) homeostasis will provide promising strategies and potential targets for therapy of cardiovascular IRI.

Baicalin attenuates blood-spinal cord barrier disruption and apoptosis through PI3K/Akt signaling pathway after spinal cord injury.

Baicalin is a natural active ingredient isolated from Scutellariae Radix that can cross the blood-brain barrier and exhibits neuroprotective effects on multiple central nervous system diseases. However, the mechanism behind the neuroprotective effects remains unclear. In this study, rat models of spinal cord injury were established using a modified Allen's impact method and then treated with intraperitoneal injection of Baicalin. The results revealed that Baicalin greatly increased the Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan Locomotor Rating Scale score, reduced blood-spinal cord barrier permeability, decreased the expression of Bax, Caspase-3, and nuclear factor κB, increased the expression of Bcl-2, and reduced neuronal apoptosis and pathological spinal cord injury. SH-SY5Y cell models of excitotoxicity were established by application of 10 mM glutamate for 12 hours and then treated with 40 µM Baicalin for 48 hours to investigate the mechanism of action of Baicalin. The results showed that Baicalin reversed tight junction protein expression tendencies (occludin and ZO-1) and apoptosis-related protein expression (Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-3, and nuclear factor-κB), and also led to up-regulation of PI3K and Akt phosphorylation. These effects on Bax, Bcl-2, and Caspase-3 were blocked by pretreatment with the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. These findings suggest that Baicalin can inhibit blood-spinal cord barrier permeability after spinal cord injury and reduce neuronal apoptosis, possibly by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. This study was approved by Animal Ethics Committee of Xi'an Jiaotong University on March 6, 2014.

[Effect of ischemia/hypoxia on mesenteric vasomotor function in spontaneously hypertensive rats and its possible mechanism].

Hypertension is a common cardiovascular disease and can induce many complications, such as stroke and coronary heart disease. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of ischemia/hypoxia on mesenteric artery vasomotor function in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Rat mesenteric arterial rings were cultured in modified ischemia-mimetic solution in a hypoxia incubator for a certain time period. Isometric tension changes of isolated mesenteric arterial rings were recorded continuously by a myograph system. The results obtained were as follows: In SHR group, the maximum contractions to KCl and phenylephrine (PE) were increased, and the maximum relaxation to acetylcholine (ACh) was decreased, compared to those in Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats group. Compared with SHR group and WKY with acute ischemia/hypoxia (WKY+H) group, SHR with acute ischemia/hypoxia (SHR+H) increased the maximum contractions induced by KCl and PE and inhibited the maximum relaxations by ACh. In SHR+H and SHR groups, the vasodilation induced by ACh was unaffected by N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methylester (L-NAME), whereas in WKY group, the relaxation to ACh was attenuated by L-NAME. CaCl2-induced contraction in depolarized rings in SHR+H group significantly shifted to the left compared with SHR group. In Ca(2+)-free K-H solution, the maximum contractions induced by PE and caffeine were increased in SHR+H group compared to those in WKY+H group; the PE- and caffeine-induced contractions were also enhanced in SHR group versus WKY group; the maximum contraction induced by PE was significantly increased in SHR+H group versus SHR group. These findings suggest that acute ischemia/hypoxia aggravates mesenteric artery dysfunction in SHR. The mechanism may be related to the decreased NO generation and increased sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release.

Activation of the M3AChR and Notch1/HSF1 Signaling Pathway by Choline Alleviates Angiotensin II-Induced Cardiomyocyte Apoptosis.

Angiotensin II- (Ang II-) induced cardiac hypertrophy and apoptosis are major characteristics of early-stage heart failure. Choline exerts cardioprotective effects; however, its effects on Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis are unclear. In this study, the role and underlying mechanism of choline in regulating Ang II-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis were investigated using a model of cardiomyocyte apoptosis, which was induced by exposing neonatal rat cardiomyocytes to Ang II (10-6 M, 48 h). Choline promoted heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) nuclear translocation and the intracellular domain of Notch1 (NICD) expression. Consequently, choline attenuated Ang II-induced increases in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and promotion of proapoptotic protein release from mitochondria, including cytochrome c, Omi/high-temperature requirement protein A2, and second mitochondrial activator of caspases/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein with low P. The reversion of these events attenuated Ang II-induced increases in cardiomyocyte size and numbers of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling-positive cells, presumably via type 3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3AChR). Indeed, downregulation of M3AChR or Notch1 blocked choline-mediated upregulation of NICD and nuclear HSF1 expression, as well as inhibited mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and cardiomyocyte apoptosis, indicating that M3AChR and Notch1/HSF1 activation confer the protective effects of choline. In vivo studies were performed in parallel, in which rats were infused with Ang II for 4 weeks to induce cardiac apoptosis. The results showed that choline alleviated cardiac remodeling and apoptosis of Ang II-infused rats in a manner related to activation of the Notch1/HSF1 pathway, consistent with the in vitro findings. Taken together, our results reveal that choline impedes oxidative damage and cardiomyocyte apoptosis by activating M3AChR and Notch1/HSF1 antioxidant signaling, and suggest a novel role for the Notch1/HSF1 signaling pathway in the modulation of cardiomyocyte apoptosis.

Activation of M3 cholinoceptors attenuates vascular injury after ischaemia/reperfusion by inhibiting the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II pathway.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The activation of M3 cholinoceptors (M3 receptors) by choline reduces cardiovascular risk, but it is unclear whether these receptors can regulate ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced vascular injury. Thus, the primary goal of the present study was to explore the effects of choline on the function of mesenteric arteries following I/R, with a major focus on Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) regulation. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: Rats were given choline (10 mg · kg(-1), i.v.) and then the superior mesenteric artery was occluded for 60 min (ischaemia), followed by 90 min of reperfusion. The M3 receptor antagonist, 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine methiodide (4-DAMP), was injected (0.12 µg · kg(-1), i.v.) 5 min prior to choline treatment. Vascular function was examined in rings of mesenteric arteries isolated after the reperfusion procedure. Vascular superoxide anion production, CaMKII and the levels of Ca(2+)-cycling proteins were also assessed. KEY RESULTS: Choline treatment attenuated I/R-induced vascular dysfunction, blocked elevations in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased the up-regulated expression of oxidised CaMKII and phosphorylated CaMKII. In addition, choline reversed the abnormal expression of Ca(2+)-cycling proteins, including Na(+)Ca(2+) exchanger, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase and phospholamban. All of these cholinergic effects of choline were abolished by 4-DAMP. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data suggest that inhibition of the ROS-mediated CaMKII pathway and modulation of Ca(2+)-cycling proteins may be novel mechanisms underlying choline-induced vascular protection. These results represent a significant addition to the understanding of the pharmacological roles of M3 receptors in the vasculature, providing a new therapeutic strategy for I/R-induced vascular injury.