Substrate Analogues for the Enzyme-Catalyzed Detoxification of the Organophosphate Nerve Agents-Sarin, Soman, and Cyclosarin.

The G-type nerve agents, sarin (GB), soman (GD), and cyclosarin (GF), are among the most toxic compounds known. Much progress has been made in evolving the enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta for the decontamination of the G-agents; however, the extreme toxicity of the G-agents makes the use of substrate analogues necessary. Typical analogues utilize a chromogenic leaving group to facilitate high-throughput screening, and substitution of an O-methyl for the P-methyl group found in the G-agents, in an effort to reduce toxicity. Till date, there has been no systematic evaluation of the effects of these substitutions on catalytic activity, and the presumed reduction in toxicity has not been tested. A series of 21 G-agent analogues, including all combinations of O-methyl, p-nitrophenyl, and thiophosphate substitutions, have been synthesized and evaluated for their ability to unveil the stereoselectivity and catalytic activity of PTE variants against the authentic G-type nerve agents. The potential toxicity of these analogues was evaluated by measuring the rate of inactivation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). All of the substitutions reduced inactivation of AChE by more than 100-fold, with the most effective being the thiophosphate analogues, which reduced the rate of inactivation by about 4-5 orders of magnitude. The analogues were found to reliably predict changes in catalytic activity and stereoselectivity of the PTE variants and led to the identification of the BHR-30 variant, which has no apparent stereoselectivity against GD and a kcat/Km of 1.4 × 106, making it the most efficient enzyme for GD decontamination reported till date.

A Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of the (RP)-Isomer of the Antiviral Prodrug Remdesivir.

The COVID-19 pandemic threatens to overwhelm healthcare systems around the world. The only current FDA-approved treatment, which directly targets the virus, is the ProTide prodrug remdesivir. In its activated form, remdesivir prevents viral replication by inhibiting the essential RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Like other ProTide prodrugs, remdesivir contains a chiral phosphorus center. The initial selection of the (SP)-diastereomer for remdesivir was reportedly due to the difficulty in producing the pure (RP)-diastereomer of the required precursor. However, the two currently known enzymes responsible for the initial activation step of remdesivir are each stereoselective and show differential tissue distribution. Given the ability of the COVID-19 virus to infect a wide array of tissue types, inclusion of the (RP)-diastereomer may be of clinical significance. To help overcome the challenge of obtaining the pure (RP)-diastereomer of remdesivir, we have developed a novel chemoenzymatic strategy that utilizes a stereoselective variant of the phosphotriesterase from Pseudomonas diminuta to enable the facile isolation of the pure (RP)-diastereomer of the chiral precursor for the chemical synthesis of the (RP)-diastereomer of remdesivir.

Stereoselective Formation of Multiple Reaction Products by the Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1.

Organophosphate flame retardants are used to inhibit combustion and increase plasticity in plastics and durable foams. While not neurotoxic, these compounds are potential carcinogens, endocrine disrupters, and developmental toxins. The phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1 (Sb-PTE) is unique among phosphotriesterase enzymes for its ability to hydrolyze these compounds and its ability to hydrolyze any one of the three different ester bonds within a given substrate. In some cases, the extent of hydrolysis of a methyl ester exceeds that of a p-nitrophenyl ester within a single substrate. There is a stereochemical component to this hydrolysis where the two enantiomers of chiral substrates give different product ratios. To investigate the stereoselectivity for the product distribution of Sb-PTE, a series of 24 phosphotriesters were synthesized with all possible combinations of methyl, cyclohexyl, phenyl, and p-nitrophenyl esters. Prochiral compounds were made chiral by differential isotopic labeling using a chemo/enzymatic strategy, which allowed the differentiation of hydrolysis for each ester in all but two compounds. The rate equations for this unique enzymatic mechanism were derived; the product ratios were determined for each substrate, and the individual kinetic constants for hydrolysis of each ester within each substrate were measured. The findings are consistent with the rate-limiting step for substrate hydrolysis catalyzed by Sb-PTE being the formation of a phosphorane-like intermediate and the kinetic constants and product ratios being dictated by a combination of transition state energies, inductive effects, and stereochemical constraints.

Enzyme-Catalyzed Kinetic Resolution of Chiral Precursors to Antiviral Prodrugs.

Nucleoside analogues are among the most common medications given for the treatment of viral infections and cancers. The therapeutic effectiveness of nucleoside analogues can be dramatically improved by phosphorylation. The ProTide approach was developed using a phosphorylated nucleoside that is masked by esterification with an amino acid and phenol forming a chiral phosphorus center. The biological activity of the ProTides depends, in part, on the stereochemistry at phosphorus, and thus, it is imperative that efficient methods be developed for the chemical synthesis and isolation of diastereomerically pure ProTides. Chiral ProTides are often synthesized by direct displacement of a labile phenol (p-nitrophenol or pentafluorophenol) from a chiral phosphoramidate precursor with the appropriate nucleoside analogue. The ability to produce these chiral products is dictated by the synthesis of the chiral phosphoramidate precursors. The enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta is well-known for its high stereoselectivity and broad substrate profile. Screening PTE variants from enzyme evolution libraries enabled the identification of variants of PTE that can stereoselectively hydrolyze the chiral phosphoramidate precursors. The variant G60A-PTE exhibits a 165-fold preference for hydrolysis of the RP isomer, while the variant In1W-PTE has a 1400-fold preference for hydrolysis of the SP isomer. Using these mutants of PTE, the SP and RP isomers were isolated on a preparative scale with no detectable contamination of the opposite isomer. Combining the simplicity of the enzymatic resolution of the precursor with the latest synthetic strategy will facilitate the production of diastereometrically pure nucleotide phosphoramidate prodrugs.

Transition State Analysis of the Reaction Catalyzed by the Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1.

Organophosphorus flame retardants are stable toxic compounds used in nearly all durable plastic products and are considered major emerging pollutants. The phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1 ( Sb-PTE) is one of the few enzymes known to be able to hydrolyze organophosphorus flame retardants such as triphenyl phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate. The effectiveness of Sb-PTE for the hydrolysis of these organophosphates appears to arise from its ability to hydrolyze unactivated alkyl and phenolic esters from the central phosphorus core. How Sb-PTE is able to catalyze the hydrolysis of the unactivated substituents is not known. To interrogate the catalytic hydrolysis mechanism of Sb-PTE, the pH dependence of the reaction and the effects of changing the solvent viscosity were determined. These experiments were complemented by measurement of the primary and secondary 18-oxygen isotope effects on substrate hydrolysis and a determination of the effects of changing the p Ka of the leaving group on the magnitude of the rate constants for hydrolysis. Collectively, the results indicated that a single group must be ionized for nucleophilic attack and that a separate general acid is not involved in protonation of the leaving group. The Brønsted analysis and the heavy atom kinetic isotope effects are consistent with an early associative transition state with subsequent proton transfers not being rate limiting. A novel binding mode of the substrate to the binuclear metal center and a catalytic mechanism are proposed to explain the unusual ability of Sb-PTE to hydrolyze unactivated esters from a wide range of organophosphate substrates.

Overcoming the Challenges of Enzyme Evolution To Adapt Phosphotriesterase for V-Agent Decontamination.

The bacterial enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) is noted for its ability to hydrolyze many organophosphate compounds, including insecticides and chemical warfare agents. PTE has been the subject of multiple enzyme evolution attempts, which have been highly successful against specific insecticides and the G-type nerve agents. Similar attempts targeting the V-type nerve agents have failed to achieve the same degree of success. Enzyme evolution is an inherently complex problem, which is complicated by synergistic effects, the need to use analogues in high-throughput screening, and a lack of quantitative data to direct future efforts. Previous evolution experiments with PTE have assumed an absence of synergy and minimally screened large libraries, which provides no quantitative information about the effects of individual mutations. Here a systemic approach has been applied to a 28800-member six-site PTE library. The library is screened against multiple V-agent analogues, and a combination of sequence and quantitative activity analysis is used to extract data about the effects of individual mutations. We demonstrate that synergistic relationships dominate the evolutionary landscape of PTE and that analogue activity profiles can be used to identify variants with high activity for substrates. Using these approaches, multiple variants with kcat/ Km values for the hydrolysis of VX that were improved >1500-fold were identified, including one variant that is improved 9200-fold relative to wild-type PTE and is specific for the SP enantiomer of VX. Multiple variants that were highly active for ( SP)-VR were identified, the best of which has a kcat/ Km values that is improved 13400-fold relative to that of wild-type PTE.

Multiple Reaction Products from the Hydrolysis of Chiral and Prochiral Organophosphate Substrates by the Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1.

The phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1 ( Sb-PTE) is notable for its ability to hydrolyze organophosphates that are not substrates for other enzymes. In an attempt to determine the catalytic properties of Sb-PTE for hydrolysis of chiral phosphotriesters, we discovered that multiple phosphodiester products are formed from a single substrate. For example, Sb-PTE catalyzes the hydrolysis of the RP-enantiomer of methyl cyclohexyl p-nitrophenyl phosphate with exclusive formation of methyl cyclohexyl phosphate. However, the enzyme catalyzes hydrolysis of the SP-enantiomer of this substrate to an equal mixture of methyl cyclohexyl phosphate and cyclohexyl p-nitrophenyl phosphate products. The ability of this enzyme to catalyze the hydrolysis of a methyl ester at the same rate as the hydrolysis of a p-nitrophenyl ester contained within the same substrate is remarkable. The overall scope of the stereoselective properties of this enzyme is addressed with a library of chiral and prochiral substrates.

Structure of a Novel Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. TCM1: A Familiar Binuclear Metal Center Embedded in a Seven-Bladed ß-Propeller Protein Fold.

A novel phosphotriesterase was recently discovered and purified from Sphingobium sp. TCM1 (Sb-PTE) and shown to catalyze the hydrolysis of a broad spectrum of organophosphate esters with a catalytic efficiency that exceeds 10(6) M(-1) s(-1) for the hydrolysis of triphenyl phosphate. The enzyme was crystallized and the three-dimensional structure determined to a resolution of 2.1 Å using single-wavelength anomalous diffraction (Protein Data Bank entry 5HRM ). The enzyme adopts a seven-bladed ß-propeller protein fold, and three disulfide bonds were identified between Cys-146 and Cys-242, Cys-411 and Cys-443, and Cys-542 and Cys-559. The active site of Sb-PTE contains a binuclear manganese center that is nearly identical to that of the structurally unrelated phosphotriesterase from Pseudomonas diminuta (Pd-PTE). The two metal ions in the active site are bridged to one another by Glu-201 and a water molecule. The α-metal ion is further coordinated to the protein by interactions with His-389, His-475, and Glu-407, whereas the ß-metal ion is further liganded to His-317 and His-258. Computational docking of mimics of the proposed pentavalent reaction intermediates for the hydrolysis of organophosphates was used to provide a model for the binding of chiral substrates in the active site of Sb-PTE. The most striking difference in the catalytic properties of Sb-PTE, relative to those of Pd-PTE, is the enhanced rate of hydrolysis of organophosphate esters with substantially weaker leaving groups. The structural basis for this difference in the catalytic properties between Sb-PTE and Pd-PTE, despite the nearly identical binuclear metal centers for the activation of the substrate and nucleophilic water molecule, is at present unclear.

Chemical Mechanism of the Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. Strain TCM1, an Enzyme Capable of Hydrolyzing Organophosphate Flame Retardants.

The mechanism of action of the manganese-dependent phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. strain TCM1 that is capable of hydrolyzing organophosphate flame retardants was determined. The enzyme was shown to hydrolyze the RP-enantiomer of O-methyl O-cyclohexyl p-nitrophenyl thiophosphate with net inversion of configuration and without the formation of a covalent reaction intermediate. These results demonstrate that the enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of substrates by activation of a nucleophilic water molecule for direct attack at the phosphorus center.

Variants of Phosphotriesterase for the Enhanced Detoxification of the Chemical Warfare Agent VR.

The V-type organophosphorus nerve agents are among the most hazardous compounds known. Previous efforts to evolve the bacterial enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) for the hydrolytic decontamination of VX resulted in the identification of the variant L7ep-3a, which has a kcat value more than 2 orders of magnitude higher than that of wild-type PTE for the hydrolysis of VX. Because of the relatively small size of the O-ethyl, methylphosphonate center in VX, stereoselectivity is not a major concern. However, the Russian V-agent, VR, contains a larger O-isobutyl, methylphosphonate center, making stereoselectivity a significant issue since the SP-enantiomer is expected to be significantly more toxic than the RP-enantiomer. The three-dimensional structure of the L7ep-3a variant was determined to a resolution of 2.01 Å (PDB id: 4ZST ). The active site of the L7ep-3a mutant has revealed a network of hydrogen bonding interactions between Asp-301, Tyr-257, Gln-254, and the hydroxide that bridges the two metal ions. A series of new analogues that mimic VX and VR has helped to identify critical structural features for the development of new enzyme variants that are further enhanced for the catalytic detoxification of VR and VX. The best of these mutants has been shown to have a reversed stereochemical preference for the hydrolysis of VR-chiral center analogues. This mutant hydrolyzes the two enantiomers of VR 160- and 600-fold faster than wild-type PTE hydrolyzes the SP-enantiomer of VR.

Interrogation of the Substrate Profile and Catalytic Properties of the Phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. Strain TCM1: An Enzyme Capable of Hydrolyzing Organophosphate Flame Retardants and Plasticizers.

The most familiar organophosphorus compounds are the neurotoxic insecticides and nerve agents. A related group of organophosphorus compounds, the phosphotriester plasticizers and flame retardants, has recently become widely used. Unlike the neurotoxic phosphotriesters, the plasticizers and flame retardants lack an easily hydrolyzable bond. While the hydrolysis of the neurotoxic organophosphates by phosphotriesterase enzymes is well-known, the lack of a labile bond in the flame retardants and plasticizers renders them inert to typical phosphotriesterases. A phosphotriesterase from Sphingobium sp. strain TCM1 (Sb-PTE) has recently been reported to catalyze the hydrolysis of organophosphorus flame retardants. This enzyme has now been expressed in Escherichia coli, and the activity with a wide variety of organophosphorus substrates has been characterized and compared to the activity of the well-known phosphotriesterase from Pseudomonas diminuta (Pd-PTE). Structure prediction suggests that Sb-PTE has a ß-propeller fold, and homology modeling has identified a potential mononuclear manganese binding site. Sb-PTE exhibits catalytic activity against typical phosphotriesterase substrates such as paraoxon, but unlike Pd-PTE, Sb-PTE is also able to effectively hydrolyze flame retardants, plasticizers, and industrial solvents. Sb-PTE can hydrolyze both phosphorus-oxygen bonds and phosphorus-sulfur bonds, but not phosphorus-nitrogen bonds. The best substrate for Sb-PTE is the flame retardant triphenyl phosphate with a kcat/Km of 1.7 × 10(6) M(-1) s(-1). Quite remarkably, Sb-PTE is also able to hydrolyze phosphotriesters with simple alcohol leaving groups such as tributyl phosphate (kcat/Km = 40 M(-1) s(-1)), suggesting that this enzyme could be useful for the bioremediation of a wide variety of organophosphorus compounds.

Catalytic mechanisms for phosphotriesterases.

Phosphotriesters are one class of highly toxic synthetic compounds known as organophosphates. Wide spread usage of organophosphates as insecticides as well as nerve agents has lead to numerous efforts to identify enzymes capable of detoxifying them. A wide array of enzymes has been found to have phosphotriesterase activity including phosphotriesterase (PTE), methyl parathion hydrolase (MPH), organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA), diisopropylfluorophosphatase (DFP), and paraoxonase 1 (PON1). These enzymes differ widely in protein sequence and three-dimensional structure, as well as in catalytic mechanism, but they also share several common features. All of the enzymes identified as phosphotriesterases are metal-dependent hydrolases that contain a hydrophobic active site with three discrete binding pockets to accommodate the substrate ester groups. Activation of the substrate phosphorus center is achieved by a direct interaction between the phosphoryl oxygen and a divalent metal in the active site. The mechanistic details of the hydrolytic reaction differ among the various enzymes with both direct attack of a hydroxide as well as covalent catalysis being found. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chemistry and mechanism of phosphatases, diesterases and triesterases.

Enzymatic neutralization of the chemical warfare agent VX: evolution of phosphotriesterase for phosphorothiolate hydrolysis.

The V-type nerve agents (VX and VR) are among the most toxic substances known. The high toxicity and environmental persistence of VX make the development of novel decontamination methods particularly important. The enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) is capable of hydrolyzing VX but with an enzymatic efficiency more than 5 orders of magnitude lower than with its best substrate, paraoxon. PTE has previously proven amenable to directed evolution for the improvement of catalytic activity against selected compounds through the manipulation of active-site residues. Here, a series of sequential two-site mutational libraries encompassing 12 active-site residues of PTE was created. The libraries were screened for catalytic activity against a new VX analogue, DEVX, which contains the same thiolate leaving group of VX coupled to a diethoxyphosphate core rather than the ethoxymethylphosphonate core of VX. The evolved catalytic activity with DEVX was enhanced 26-fold relative to wild-type PTE. Further improvements were facilitated by targeted error-prone PCR mutagenesis of loop-7, and additional PTE variants were identified with up to a 78-fold increase in the rate of DEVX hydrolysis. The best mutant hydrolyzed the racemic nerve agent VX with a value of kcat/Km = 7 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1), a 230-fold improvement relative to wild-type PTE. The highest turnover number achieved by the mutants created for this investigation was 137 s(-1), an enhancement of 152-fold relative to wild-type PTE. The stereoselectivity for the hydrolysis of the two enantiomers of VX was relatively low. These engineered mutants of PTE are the best catalysts ever reported for the hydrolysis of nerve agent VX.

Enzymes for the homeland defense: optimizing phosphotriesterase for the hydrolysis of organophosphate nerve agents.

Phosphotriesterase (PTE) from soil bacteria is known for its ability to catalyze the detoxification of organophosphate pesticides and chemical warfare agents. Most of the organophosphate chemical warfare agents are a mixture of two stereoisomers at the phosphorus center, and the S(P)-enantiomers are significantly more toxic than the R(P)-enantiomers. In previous investigations, PTE variants were created through the manipulation of the substrate binding pockets and these mutants were shown to have greater catalytic activities for the detoxification of the more toxic S(P)-enantiomers of nerve agent analogues for GB, GD, GF, VX, and VR than the less toxic R(P)-enantiomers. In this investigation, alternate strategies were employed to discover additional PTE variants with significant improvements in catalytic activities relative to that of the wild-type enzyme. Screening and selection techniques were utilized to isolate PTE variants from randomized libraries and site specific modifications. The catalytic activities of these newly identified PTE variants toward the S(P)-enantiomers of chromophoric analogues of GB, GD, GF, VX, and VR have been improved up to 15000-fold relative to that of the wild-type enzyme. The X-ray crystal structures of the best PTE variants were determined. Characterization of these mutants with the authentic G-type nerve agents has confirmed the expected improvements in catalytic activity against the most toxic enantiomers of GB, GD, and GF. The values of k(cat)/K(m) for the H257Y/L303T (YT) mutant for the hydrolysis of GB, GD, and GF were determined to be 2 × 10(6), 5 × 10(5), and 8 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1), respectively. The YT mutant is the most proficient enzyme reported thus far for the detoxification of G-type nerve agents. These results support a combinatorial strategy of rational design and directed evolution as a powerful tool for the discovery of more efficient enzymes for the detoxification of organophosphate nerve agents.

The N-terminus of glycogen phosphorylase b is not required for activation by adenosine 5'-monophosphate.

The, so far unsuccessful, search for selective effective inhibitors of glycogen phosphorylase for the treatment of type II diabetes has made phosphorylase an active target of research for the past 20 years. Many crystallographic structures of phosphorylase are currently available to aid in this research. However, those structures have been interpreted, at least in part, on the basis of work conducted with a proteolytically derived form of phosphorylase that lacked the N-terminus (phosphorylase b'). It has been reported that phosphorylase b' shows no allostery, neither homotropic nor heterotropic. The original report on phosphorylase b' examined the allosteric characteristics over very narrow ranges of effector and substrate concentrations and reported the presence of proteolytic cleavages in addition to the removal of the N-terminus. We have applied molecular biological techniques to generate a truncate lacking the N-terminus with known primary structure, and we have established conditions for fully quantifying the allosteric effect of AMP on glycogen phosphorylase b. We report here for the first time the full thermodynamic effect of AMP on phosphorylase b. Our findings with a truncate lacking the N-terminus show that the effect of AMP binding does not depend on the N-terminus.

The evolution of phosphotriesterase for decontamination and detoxification of organophosphorus chemical warfare agents.

The organophosphorus chemical warfare agents were initially synthesized in the 1930's and are some of the most toxic compounds ever discovered. The standard means of decontamination are either harsh chemical hydrolysis or high temperature incineration. Given the continued use of chemical warfare agents there are ongoing efforts to develop gentle environmentally friendly means of decontamination and medical counter measures to chemical warfare agent intoxication. Enzymatic decontamination offers the benefits of extreme specificity and mild conditions, allowing their use for both environmental and medical applications. The most promising enzyme for decontamination of the organophosphorus chemical warfare agents is the enzyme phosphotriesterase from Pseudomonas diminuta. However, the catalytic activity of the wild-type enzyme with the chemical warfare agents falls far below that seen with its best substrates, and its stereochemical preference is for the less toxic enantiomer of the chiral phosphorus center found in most chemical warfare agents. Rational design efforts have succeeded in the dramatic improvement of the stereochemical preference of PTE for the more toxic enantiomers. Directed evolution experiments, including site-saturation mutagenesis, targeted error-prone PCR, computational design, and quantitative library analysis, have systematically improved the catalytic activity against the chemical warfare nerve agents. These efforts have resulted in greater than 4-orders of magnitude improvement in catalytic activity and have led to the identification of variants that are highly effective at detoxifying both G-type and V-type nerve agents. The best of these variants have the ability to prevent intoxication when delivered as a post-exposure treatment for VX and as a pre-exposure treatment for G-agent intoxication with observed protective factors up to 60-fold. Combining the best variant, H257Y/L303T, with a PCB polymer coating has enabled the development of a long lasting circulating prophylactic treatment that is highly effective against sarin.

Nanoscavenger provides long-term prophylactic protection against nerve agents in rodents.

Nerve agents are a class of organophosphorus compounds (OPs) that blocks communication between nerves and organs. Because of their acute neurotoxicity, it is extremely difficult to rescue the victims after exposure. Numerous efforts have been devoted to search for an effective prophylactic nerve agent bioscavenger to prevent the deleterious effects of these compounds. However, low scavenging efficiency, unfavorable pharmacokinetics, and immunological problems have hampered the development of effective drugs. Here, we report the development and testing of a nanoparticle-based nerve agent bioscavenger (nanoscavenger) that showed long-term protection against OP intoxication in rodents. The nanoscavenger, which catalytically breaks down toxic OP compounds, showed a good pharmacokinetic profile and negligible immune response in a rat model of OP intoxication. In vivo administration of the nanoscavenger before or after OP exposure in animal models demonstrated protective and therapeutic efficacy. In a guinea pig model, a single prophylactic administration of the nanoscavenger effectively prevented lethality after multiple sarin exposures over a 1-week period. Our results suggest that the prophylactic administration of the nanoscavenger might be effective in preventing the toxic effects of OP exposure in humans.

An OPAA enzyme mutant with increased catalytic efficiency on the nerve agents sarin, soman, and GP.

The wild-type OPAA enzyme has relatively high levels of catalytic activity against several organophosphate G-type nerve agents. A series of mutants containing replacement amino acids at the OPAA Y212, V342, and I215 sites showed several fold enhanced catalytic efficiency on sarin, soman, and GP. One mutant, Y212F/V342L, showed enhanced stereospecificity on sarin and that enzyme along with a phosphotriesterase mutant, GWT, which had the opposite stereospecificity, were used to generate enriched preparations of each sarin enantiomer. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by the respective enantioenriched sarin solutions subsequently provided identification of the sarin enantiomers as separated by normal phase enantioselective liquid chromatography coupled with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry.