Emotional control in selected somatic and psychiatric diseases.

THE AIM: was to assess the level of subjective control of emotional states among patients treated for dermatological and gastrointestinal somatic diseases compared to those with depressive and anxiety disorders. The results were related to the analyzed dimensions of emotion regulation in healthy subjects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The reports of the conducted studies were compiled for a total of 310 people, including 120 patients diagnosed with a somatic disease (psoriasis, rosacea, irritable bowel syndrome, and gastroesophageal reflux), as well as 96 patients diagnosed with depressive disorders and 30 patients with anxiety disorders. The control group consisted of healthy subjects (64 individuals). To assess the psychological variables analyzed, the subjects completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire developed by J. Brzezinski. RESULTS: The study showed that the patients suffering from a chronic somatic symptom disorder, similarly to those treated for depression and anxiety disorders, differed from the healthy individuals in most aspects of emotional control. The patients with dermatological and gastrointestinal diseases differed statistically significantly from the patients with depression and the patients with anxiety disorders in relation to three dimensions of emotional control. Patients with a somatic disease are characterized by higher emotional and rational motivation, lower emotional resilience and lower emotional arousal. CONCLUSIONS: A chronic disease co-occurs with the emotional sphere of a person's daily functioning. Regardless of the diagnosis in terms of somatic disorders and mental illnesses, the way in which emotional states are controlled can be an important factor in the onset of the disease, coping with it as well as the treatment process.

On top or underneath: where does the general factor of psychopathology fit within a dimensional model of psychopathology?

BACKGROUND: Dimensional models of psychopathology are increasingly common and there is evidence for the existence of a general dimension of psychopathology ('p'). The existing literature presents two ways to model p: as a bifactor or as a higher-order dimension. Bifactor models typically fit sample data better than higher-order models, and are often selected as better fitting alternatives but there are reasons to be cautious of such an approach to model selection. In this study the bifactor and higher-order models of p were compared in relation to associations with established risk variables for mental illness. METHODS: A trauma exposed community sample from the United Kingdom (N = 1051) completed self-report measures of 49 symptoms of psychopathology. RESULTS: A higher-order model with four first-order dimensions (Fear, Distress, Externalising and Thought Disorder) and a higher-order p dimension provided satisfactory model fit, and a bifactor representation provided superior model fit. Bifactor p and higher-order p were highly correlated (r = 0.97) indicating that both parametrisations produce near equivalent general dimensions of psychopathology. Latent variable models including predictor variables showed that the risk variables explained more variance in higher-order p than bifactor p. The higher-order model produced more interpretable associations for the first-order/specific dimensions compared to the bifactor model. CONCLUSIONS: The higher-order representation of p, as described in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology, appears to be a more appropriate way to conceptualise the general dimension of psychopathology than the bifactor approach. The research and clinical implications of these discrepant ways of modelling p are discussed.

A repeated cross-sectional survey assessing university students' stress, depression, anxiety, and suicidality in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland.

BACKGROUND: The time of widespread outbreaks of infectious diseases can lead to elevated stress and mental health problems among all persons affected, and in particular those sub-groups of the population that are at an increased risk of mental health problems. One such vulnerable group constitutes university students. The aim of this study is to assess stress, depression, anxiety, and suicidality among different groups of university students (medical, psychology, and other). METHODS: Using a repeated cross-sectional study design, we collected survey data among a large sample of 7228 university students from Poland (mean age = 22.78, s.d. = 4.40; 81% female). Data were collected in five waves, during the first 2 months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe (March and April 2020). RESULTS: The results demonstrate a significant increase in depression levels as the pandemic was progressing. We also found that female students scored significantly higher than male students on depression, anxiety, and stress. Psychology students recorded the lowest scores on depression and anxiety. Young adult students (aged 18-24 years) had more symptoms of depression, anxiety, and suicidality than adult students (⩾25 years). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide insights into stress and mental health among university students during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings can be used for a more effective identification of students who may struggle during next stages of the pandemic and future crises.

Is Female Psychopathy Linked with Child Abuse? An Empirical Investigation using a Person-Centered Approach.

Childhood abuse is associated with increased psychopathic features among girls, but most prior research is based on data from correctional samples of female delinquents and less is known about how specific forms of childhood abuse affect specific features of psychopathy. Using a school-based community sample of 696 girls aged 9-17 years from Barbados and Grenada, the current study examined latent profiles of psychopathic personality traits and their associations with physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four distinct psychopathy groups among girls, including a 'low psychopathy' group (41.9% of girls), 'high psychopathy' group (4.8%), 'high interpersonal manipulation and egocentricity' group (37.4%), and a 'moderate psychopathy' group (16%). There was considerable evidence of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse among participants. Sexual abuse was associated with a 116% increased likelihood of membership in the high psychopathy group and a 57% increased likelihood of membership in the high interpersonal manipulation and egocentricity group. These results indicate that sexual abuse is a powerful distal factor in the development of psychopathic personality functioning, especially more severe variants.

Psychosocial Correlates of Attitudes Toward Male Sexual Violence in a Sample of Financial Crime, Property Crime, General Violent, and Homicide Offenders.

Although those currently serving prison sentences for sexual violence can be identified and receive treatment, the number of prisoners with a history of sexual violence against female partners is unknown. Methods to identify prisoners with a proclivity for such violence and accurately assess the risk they pose before and after incarceration are therefore required. Here, we aimed to assess the level of sexually violent attitudes within dating relationships and to examine their associations with experiences of child abuse and neglect (CAN), psychopathic personality traits, prisonization, number of incarcerations, age, years of schooling, relationship status, and parenting among different types of offenders (financial crime, property crime, general violent, and homicide offenders). Data were collected among a large systematically selected sample of adult male inmates ( N = 1,123). We demonstrated that sexual violence-supportive attitudes appear to be a function of child sexual abuse and psychopathic personality traits, and may be developed through early socialization experiences as well as incarceration. Practical implications of current findings are discussed.

Exposure to criminal environment and criminal social identity in a sample of adult prisoners: The moderating role of psychopathic traits.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of period of incarceration, criminal friend index (a retrospective measure intended to quantify criminal associations before 1st incarceration), and 4 psychopathy factors (interpersonal manipulation, callous affect, erratic lifestyle, and antisocial behavior) in criminal social identity (CSI) while controlling for age and gender. Participants were a sample of 501 incarcerated offenders (male n = 293; female n = 208) from 3 prisons located in Pennsylvania State. Moderated regression analyses indicated no significant direct association between period of incarceration and CSI or between criminal friend index and Measure of Criminal Social Identity (MCSI). However, a significant moderating effect of interpersonal manipulation on the relationship between period of incarceration and MCSI was observed. Period of incarceration was significantly positively correlated with MCSI (particularly with the in-group ties subscale) for only those offenders who scored high (1 SD above the mean) on interpersonal manipulation and significantly negatively correlated for those who scored low (1 SD below the mean) on interpersonal manipulation. Also, criminal friend index was positively significantly associated with in-group ties for high levels (1 SD above the mean) of callous affect. The main findings provide evidence for the claim that prisoners are likely to simulate changes in identity through the formation of bonds with other offenders and that this can be achieved using interpersonal manipulation skills. (PsycINFO Database Record

A bifactorial solution to the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version in a sample of civil psychiatric patients.

BACKGROUND: There is considerable debate about the underlying factor structure of the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL: SV). An established view is that it reflects a unitary construct underpinned by two correlated factors. More recent research has, however, undermined this conceptualisation. AIMS: Our aim was to compare 10 competing models of the PCL: SV in a sample of civil psychiatric patients. METHOD: Ten distinct factor models were specified and tested using conventional confirmatory factor analytic techniques, along with confirmatory bifactor modelling. RESULTS: A bifactor model, including two general factors (interpersonal-affective and antisocial-lifestyle), and four subordinate factors (interpersonal, affective, antisocial and lifestyle) provided the best fit to the data. The reliability of the conceptualisation was supported through the use of composite reliability, and the differential relationships exhibited between the general factors and measures of personality, impulsivity and mental health. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide further weight to taking the two general psychopathy factors into account when interpreting the PCL: SV for clinical purposes. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Gender Differences in Psychosocial Predictors of Attitudes Toward Reporting Child Sexual Abuse in the United Kingdom.

There is a dearth of research investigating psychosocial correlates of attitudes toward reporting child sexual abuse in males and females and a lack of such studies drawing on participants from the United Kingdom. Therefore, the main objective of this article is to examine gender differences in social and psychological predictors of attitudes toward reporting child sexual abuse. Participants drawn from the United Kingdom general population were recruited via an opportunistic sampling method. Cross-sectional design using a self-report questionnaire was utilized. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that social support, masculinity, and age form significant associations with attitudes toward reporting child sexual abuse in females (total variance explained by the model was 25%). In the male sample, the only significant predictor of attitudes toward reporting child sexual abuse was interpersonal manipulation (total variance explained by the model was 9%). This study provides an important insight into psychosocial barriers and facilitators to reporting child sexual abuse. Such knowledge is crucial for the early detection and prevention of abuse.

Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Cognition Inventory within a Northern Ireland adolescent sample.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to investigate the psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI; Foa et al., 1999, Psychol. Assess., 11, 303) among a cohort of older adolescents and to determine the relationship between post-traumatic cognitions and a variety of psychological outcomes including depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness. METHODS: The PTCI was investigated among a large sample (N = 785) of Northern Irish adolescents. Confirmatory factor analysis and composite reliability analysis were conducted to assess the psychometric properties of the scale. RESULTS: The familiar three-factor solution of negative cognitions of self, negative cognitions of the world and others, and self-blame was supported; however, it was necessary to remove eight items from the original 33-item scale. The three-factor structure was subsequently demonstrated to be factorially invariant across gender and to possess satisfactory internal reliability. The three PTCI factors were found to correlate with depression, anxiety, stress, and three dimensions of loneliness. CONCLUSION: These results provide the first piece of evidence that older adolescents cognitively respond to trauma in a similar manner to adults, that the PTCI is factorially invariant between genders, and that trauma cognitions are correlated with feelings of loneliness. The contextual dependent nature of the structure of the PTCI factors is discussed in relation to future research efforts. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The PTCI is a valid and reliable measure of trauma-related cognitions among adolescents and works equally well for male adolescents and female adolescents. Trauma cognitions are associated with a range of mental health problems beyond post-traumatic stress disorder including depression, anxiety, stress, and various aspects of loneliness. Reductions in trauma cognitions in survivors of trauma will have wide-scale clinical benefits to patient well-being. The exact structure and make-up of items in the PTCI may well be dependent on culture, context, and the nature of the trauma. The study is limited due to the fact that the authors could not assess the severity of the trauma experienced by the adolescent sample.

Factors associated with crisis pregnancies in Ireland: findings from three nationally representative sexual health surveys.

BACKGROUND: Findings on the demographic and sexual health characteristics associated with the experience of a crisis pregnancy are important to inform the public health policy of a country, including Ireland. Studies from other jurisdictions have suggested that certain demographic groups are at risk for unintended pregnancies and the disparity between the groups has been growing in recent years. Ireland is a country which experienced much economic and societal change in the first decade of the 21(st) century; changes which are likely to have affected demographic variables pertaining to sexual health. The current study had two aims: to investigate changes in the socioeconomic characteristics associated with crisis pregnancies over a seven year period [2003 to 2010], and to investigate the recent [2010] socioeconomic risk factors associated with crisis pregnancies in Ireland. METHODS: The study compared the results from 18-45 year old women using data from three broadly similar nationally representative Irish sexual health surveys carried out in 2003, 2004-2006 and 2010. Chi square analysis compared of the socioeconomic characteristics across the seven year period. A logistic regression then investigated the sexual health history and socioeconomic factors associated with the experience of a recent crisis pregnancy using the most recent 2010 data. RESULTS: In 2010, 74% of women experienced parenthood and 23% experienced abortion as the outcome of their crisis pregnancy. Receipt of sex education and contraception use at first sex significantly predicted the experiencing of a recent crisis pregnancy. Younger women and those with a lower level of education were more likely to report having experienced a recent crisis pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Similar demographic groups are at risk for experiencing a crisis pregnancy in Ireland compared with international research, yet the disparities between demographic groups who have experienced a crisis pregnancy appear to be decreasing rather than increasing over a seven year period. Recommendations are made with regard to the provision of continued sex education throughout the lifespan, particularly for those women who are at an increased risk of experiencing a crisis pregnancy.

Psychopathy and self-injurious thoughts and behaviour: application of latent class analysis.

BACKGROUND: Although early conceptualisations posited an inverse relationship between psychopathy and self-injury, little research has tested this. AIMS: To examine the self-injurious thoughts and behaviours associated with psychopathy. METHODS: Data from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Project (N = 871) were used to examine homogenous subtypes of participants based on their responses to six self-injury items. A binary logistic regression model was used to interpret the nature of the latent classes by estimating the associations with the four psychopathy factors, mixed anxiety-depression, violence victimisation, and gender. RESULTS: A 2-class solution provided the best fit to the data. Most participants (86.2%) were assigned to the baseline ("low self-injury risk") group. "The high-risk self-injury group" was characterised by a higher probability of endorsing all self-injury items, particularly "thoughts of hurting self" and "attempts to hurt self". The four psychopathy factors showed differential associations with self-injury group membership. Participant's scorings, higher on the affective component and lower on interpersonal component of psychopathy, were significantly more likely to be assigned to the high risk group. Significant associations were also found between mixed anxiety/depression and gender, and "high-risk self-injury group" membership. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have important implications for the identification of individuals at risk of self-injury.

Modeling the structure of the attitudes and belief scale 2 using CFA and bifactor approaches: Toward the development of an abbreviated version.

The Attitudes and Belief Scale-2 (ABS-2: DiGiuseppe, Leaf, Exner, & Robin, 1988. The development of a measure of rational/irrational thinking. Paper presented at the World Congress of Behavior Therapy, Edinburg, Scotland.) is a 72-item self-report measure of evaluative rational and irrational beliefs widely used in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy research contexts. However, little psychometric evidence exists regarding the measure's underlying factor structure. Furthermore, given the length of the ABS-2 there is a need for an abbreviated version that can be administered when there are time demands on the researcher, such as in clinical settings. This study sought to examine a series of theoretical models hypothesized to represent the latent structure of the ABS-2 within an alternative models framework using traditional confirmatory factor analysis as well as utilizing a bifactor modeling approach. Furthermore, this study also sought to develop a psychometrically sound abbreviated version of the ABS-2. Three hundred and thirteen (N = 313) active emergency service personnel completed the ABS-2. Results indicated that for each model, the application of bifactor modeling procedures improved model fit statistics, and a novel eight-factor intercorrelated solution was identified as the best fitting model of the ABS-2. However, the observed fit indices failed to satisfy commonly accepted standards. A 24-item abbreviated version was thus constructed and an intercorrelated eight-factor solution yielded satisfactory model fit statistics. Current results support the use of a bifactor modeling approach to determining the factor structure of the ABS-2. Furthermore, results provide empirical support for the psychometric properties of the newly developed abbreviated version.

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: a bifactor answer to a two-factor question?

Despite its long-standing and widespread use, disagreement remains regarding the structure of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). In particular, concern remains regarding the degree to which the scale assesses self-esteem as a unidimensional or multidimensional (positive and negative self-esteem) construct. Using a sample of 3,862 high school students in the United Kingdom, 4 models were tested: (a) a unidimensional model, (b) a correlated 2-factor model in which the 2 latent variables are represented by positive and negative self-esteem, (c) a hierarchical model, and (d) a bifactor model. The totality of results including item loadings, goodness-of-fit indexes, reliability estimates, and correlations with self-efficacy measures all supported the bifactor model, suggesting that the 2 hypothesized factors are better understood as "grouping" factors rather than as representative of latent constructs. Accordingly, this study supports the unidimensionality of the RSES and the scoring of all 10 items to produce a global self-esteem score.

The organization of irrational beliefs in posttraumatic stress symptomology: testing the predictions of REBT theory using structural equation modelling.

OBJECTIVE: This study directly tests a central prediction of rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) that has received little empirical attention regarding the core and intermediate beliefs in the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms. METHOD: A theoretically consistent REBT model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was examined using structural equation modelling techniques among a sample of 313 trauma-exposed military and law enforcement personnel. RESULTS: The REBT model of PTSD provided a good fit of the data, χ(2) = 599.173, df = 356, p < .001; standardized root mean square residual = .05 (confidence interval = .04-.05); standardized root mean square residual = .04; comparative fit index = .95; Tucker Lewis index = .95. Results demonstrated that demandingness beliefs indirectly affected the various symptom groups of PTSD through a set of secondary irrational beliefs that include catastrophizing, low frustration tolerance, and depreciation beliefs. CONCLUSIONS: Results were consistent with the predictions of REBT theory and provides strong empirical support that the cognitive variables described by REBT theory are critical cognitive constructs in the prediction of PTSD symptomology.

The moderating role of rational beliefs in the relationship between irrational beliefs and posttraumatic stress symptomology.

BACKGROUND: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) assumes that rational beliefs act as cognitive protective factors against the development of psychopathology; however little empirical evidence exists regarding the nature of the possible protective effects that they offer. AIMS: The current study investigates whether rational beliefs moderate the impact of irrational beliefs on posttraumatic stress symptomology (PTS). METHOD: Three hundred and thirteen active law enforcement, military, and related emergency service personnel took part in the current study. Sequential moderated multiple regression analysis was employed to investigate: (i) the direct impact of irrational beliefs on PTS; (ii) the direct impact of rational beliefs on PTS; (iii) the moderating effects of rational beliefs in the relationship between irrational beliefs and PTS. RESULTS: The irrational beliefs predicted by REBT theory emerged as critical predictors of PTS symptomology, in particular Depreciation beliefs. Rational beliefs (Preferences, and Acceptance beliefs) had a direct, negative impact on levels of PTS, and Acceptance beliefs moderated the impact of Catastrophizing beliefs on PTS. CONCLUSIONS: Irrational beliefs are important cognitive vulnerability factors in symptoms of PTS, while rational beliefs (Acceptance) appear to have a protective role in the emergence of PTS symptoms, both directly and by moderating the impact of Catastrophizing beliefs.

Testing the Spillover Effect of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization on Emotionally Abusive and Harsh Parenting Practices: The Application of Propensity Score Matching.

Prior research reported a significant association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and negative parenting, but there was an overreliance on U.S. samples and families from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. Therefore, this quasi-experimental study examined the association between recent IPV victimization and abusive parenting practices in a sample of community-based women from Poland. Participants were mothers of children aged 2 to 5 years (N = 610) attending an outpatient clinic located in a city in south-eastern Poland. Mothers were asked about their IPV experiences in the past 12 months and were classed as either IPV positive or IPV negative. Outcome measures assessed emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices. All data were collected online. To reduce bias in background characteristics (i.e., age, education, employment status, financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, alcohol problems, current mental distress, social support, exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors, and child sex), we applied the propensity score matching (PSM) technique. Group differences before and after matching were examined using independent samples t-tests. Prematching analyses revealed that IPV-positive mothers used significantly more emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices than IPV-negative mothers. However, the two samples differed substantially on six background characteristics which are known risk factors for IPV and child maltreatment (financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, current mental distress, social support, and exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors). PSM was successful in reducing those imbalances. Postmatching group comparisons were statistically nonsignificant for emotionally abusive and harsh parenting, disproving the spillover hypothesis. We conclude that IPV victimization is not related to emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices when controlling for confounding variables.

Attribution of Blame in an Intimate Partner Violence Situation: The Effect of Victim Sexuality and Observer Sex.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an extensive public health concern, largely affecting women aged 20 to 24 years. Research suggests that bisexual women are more likely than heterosexual and homosexual women to be victims of IPV. Bisexual women are also more likely to be blamed for their abuse experiences after disclosing, a phenomenon known as victim blame attribution (VBA). However, very little VBA research recognizes bisexuality as a separate category. Therefore, the main aim of this quasi-experimental study was to investigate the role of female victim sexuality (bisexuality, homosexuality, and heterosexuality) and observer sex in the attribution of blame to the victim and perpetrator of IPV. Participants (N = 232; aged 18-24 years, M = 21.05, SD = 1.73) were randomly assigned into one of four conditions (heterosexual victim, bisexual victim with same-sex partner, bisexual victim with different-sex partner, homosexual victim), each containing a vignette portraying IPV within a relationship. Randomization checks were performed to ensure that participants in the four conditions did not differ significantly on underlying attitudes (institutional heterosexism (IH), aversive heterosexism (AH), heterosexual privilege (HP), sexist attitudes, just world beliefs) that may have affected their responses on outcome measures. Main analyses demonstrated that bisexual victims with a same-sex partner received the highest attribution of blame, whereas perpetrators in this condition received the lowest blame attribution. Male participants attributed significantly higher blame to victims than did female participants, regardless of victim sexuality. These findings substantiate the role of victim sexuality and observer sex in IPV blame attribution patterns. This research aimed to promote equality and rightful treatment to all victims of IPV regardless of their sexuality.

Comparison of Person-Centered and Cumulative Risk Approaches in Explaining the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral and Emotional Problems.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) commonly co-occur, and researchers often estimate their impact using a cumulative risk approach. The person-centered approach offers another approach to operationalize the co-occurrence of ACEs. This study aims to estimate latent classes of ACEs in a sample of U.K. children, examine their relationship with emotional and behavioral problems, and compare the explanatory value of the latent classes to cumulative risk scores. Data were collected among a general population sample of British 10-year-old children extracted from the U.K. Household Longitudinal Study (N = 601). Seven items characterized ACEs, comprising parent-report physical discipline, emotional abuse, supervisory neglect, maternal psychological distress, child-report parental educational disinterest, bullying victimization, and adverse neighborhood. Outcome measures were derived from the self-report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire including total difficulties, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, hyperactivity, peer problems, and prosocial behavior. Latent class analysis resulted in a three-class solution: low ACEs, household challenges, and community challenges. Compared to the other classes, the community challenges class scored substantially worse on total difficulties, emotional symptoms, and peer subscales. The cumulative risk score was associated with all outcomes except prosocial behavior. Cumulative risk models accounted for a larger proportion of variance compared with the latent class models, except for peer problems which the person-centered model explained better. This study confirms that ACEs are associated with impairment in child functioning, and that both person-centered and cumulative risk approaches can capture this relationship well. Specifically, the person-centered approach demonstrated how co-occurring risk factors in the community challenges class produced particularly poor internalizing outcomes.

Profiles of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization: A Systematic Review.

Person-centered approaches, such as latent class analysis (LCA) and latent profile analysis (LPA), aid the identification of subgroups within sample populations. These methods can identify the patterns of co-occurrence between different forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), providing valuable information for prevention and intervention efforts. The aim of this systematic review was to yield a summary and conduct a critical evaluation of the current research that utilizes LCA/LPA to investigate IPV victimization profiles. We provide an outline of 14 relevant studies, retrieved from searches conducted on PsycInfo, Scopus, and Eric databases. There was a large amount of variability in relation to the forms of IPV assessed, measures utilized, number of classes identified, and the sample populations recruited. However, broad similarities were revealed as there were some commonly identified classes, including the no/low violence class, the physical and psychological victimization class, and the multiple victimization class, yet the labels assigned to those classes differed across studies. A range of external criteria (risk factors and consequences) were also identified as being associated with class membership. We highlight the methodological features which may have impacted data collection and class enumeration, including the differences in sample population, the range of IPV indicators assessed, the time period from which IPV data were recorded, and whether data were collected regarding participants' current or previous relationships. Marginalized populations were underrepresented, and psychological abuse was most inconsistently operationalized. Recommendations for future research are provided, including recommendations with regard to labeling the classes for greater consistency across studies.

Development and validation of a measure of criminal social identity within a sample of Polish recidivistic prisoners.

BACKGROUND: Social identity is a well-established theoretical concept within psychological research; however, the role of criminal social identity has received far less research attention. One salient reason for the limited research relating to the concept of criminal social identity is the absence of a specific measure. AIM: To develop and test the construct validity of a new measure of criminal social identity (MCSI) and to provide additional evidence relating to Cameron's three-factor conceptualisation of social identity. METHOD: The eight-item MCSI was used to collect data from recidivists incarcerated in high-security prison (N=312) to assess criminal social identification. These data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: Three alternative models of criminal social identity were specified and tested in Mplus 6, and results revealed that the data were best explained by a three-factor model of criminal social identity (cognitive centrality, in-group affect and in-group ties). CONCLUSION: The current study is important in terms of future research in criminology and psychology because the MCSI provides the first reliable MCSI, which was developed and validated on a relatively large recidivistic prison sample.