Independent transcriptomic and proteomic regulation by type I and II protein arginine methyltransferases.

Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) catalyze the post-translational monomethylation (Rme1), asymmetric (Rme2a), or symmetric (Rme2s) dimethylation of arginine. To determine the cellular consequences of type I (Rme2a) and II (Rme2s) PRMTs, we developed and integrated multiple approaches. First, we determined total cellular dimethylarginine levels, revealing that Rme2s was ∼3% of total Rme2 and that this percentage was dependent upon cell type and PRMT inhibition status. Second, we quantitatively characterized in vitro substrates of the major enzymes and expanded upon PRMT substrate recognition motifs. We also compiled our data with publicly available methylarginine-modified residues into a comprehensive database. Third, we inhibited type I and II PRMTs and performed proteomic and transcriptomic analyses to reveal their phenotypic consequences. These experiments revealed both overlapping and independent PRMT substrates and cellular functions. Overall, this study expands upon PRMT substrate diversity, the arginine methylome, and the complex interplay of type I and II PRMTs.

Multiple classes of MSL binding sites target dosage compensation to the X chromosome of Drosophila.

MSL complexes bind hundreds of sites along the single male X chromosome to achieve dosage compensation in Drosophila. Previously, we proposed that approximately 35 "high-affinity" or "chromatin entry" sites (CES) might nucleate spreading of MSL complexes in cis to paint the X chromosome. This was based on analysis of the first characterized sites roX1 and roX2. roX transgenes attract MSL complex to autosomal locations where it can spread long distances into flanking chromatin. roX1 and roX2 also produce noncoding RNA components of the complex. Here we identify a third site from the 18D10 region of the X chromosome. Like roX genes, 18D binds full and partial MSL complexes in vivo and encompasses a male-specific DNase I hypersensitive site (DHS). Unlike roX genes, the 510 bp 18D site is apparently not transcribed and shows high affinity for MSL complex and spreading only as a multimer. While mapping 18D, we discovered MSL binding to X cosmids that do not carry one of the approximately 35 high-affinity sites. Based on additional analyses of chromosomal transpositions, we conclude that spreading in cis from the roX genes or the approximately 35 originally proposed "entry sites" cannot be the sole mechanism for MSL targeting to the X chromosome.

Set2 is a nucleosomal histone H3-selective methyltransferase that mediates transcriptional repression.

Recent studies of histone methylation have yielded fundamental new insights pertaining to the role of this modification in gene activation as well as in gene silencing. While a number of methylation sites are known to occur on histones, only limited information exists regarding the relevant enzymes that mediate these methylation events. We thus sought to identify native histone methyltransferase (HMT) activities from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, we describe the biochemical purification and characterization of Set2, a novel HMT that is site-specific for lysine 36 (Lys36) of the H3 tail. Using an antiserum directed against Lys36 methylation in H3, we show that Set2, via its SET domain, is responsible for methylation at this site in vivo. Tethering of Set2 to a heterologous promoter reveals that Set2 represses transcription, and part of this repression is mediated through the HMT activity of the SET domain. These results suggest that Set2 and methylation at H3 Lys36 play a role in the repression of gene transcription.

Resetting the histone code at CDKN2A in HNSCC by inhibition of DNA methylation.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is the fifth most frequent cancer in the US. Several genetic and epigenetic alterations are associated with HNSCC tumorigenesis, including inactivation of CDKN2A, which encodes the p16 tumor suppressor, in cell lines and primary tumors by DNA methylation. Reactivation of tumor suppressor genes by DNA-demethylating agents and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors shows therapeutic promise for other cancers. Therefore, we investigated the ability of these agents to reactivate p16 in Tu159 HNSCC cells. Treatment of cells with 5-aza-2'deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC) increases CDKN2A expression and slightly increases histone H3 acetylation at this gene. No reactivation of CDKN2A is observed upon treatment with the HDAC inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA), but synergistic reactivation of CDKN2A is observed upon sequential treatment of Tu159 cells with both 5-aza-dC and TSA. Silencing of CDKN2A in Tu159 cells is correlated with increased methylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 and decreased methylation at lysine 4 relative to the upstream p15 gene promoter. Interestingly, global levels of H3-K9 methylation are decreased upon treatment with 5-aza-dC. Together these data indicate that DNA methylation is a dominant epigenetic mark for silencing of CDKN2A in Tu159 tumor cells. Moreover, changes in DNA methylation can reset the histone code by impacting multiple H3 modifications.