Cryptococcosis in domestic and wild animals: A review.

Cryptococcosis is a fungal disease of public health relevance that affects numerous animal species and humans, causing respiratory and neurological impairment. Hence, we conducted a systematic review that included publications from 1975 to 2021 and covered 132 articles that addressed reports of cryptococcosis in domestic and wild animals, its main clinical manifestations, pathological findings, etiology, diagnosis, and therapeutic protocols. We found that the highest number of reports of cryptococcosis is in domestic species, especially cats. Among the wild and/or exotic animals, koalas and ferrets are the most affected, being important carriers of Cryptococcus spp. Pulmonary and neurological involvement is predominant in all species, although nonspecific clinical manifestations have been reported in various species, making clinical suspicion and diagnosis difficult. The countries with the most reports are Australia, the United States, Brazil, and Canada, with C. gattii VGI and VGII standing out. The therapies were based on azoles, amphotericin B, and 5-flucytosine, although there is no standard treatment protocol. Although, several diagnostic methods have been described, in a significant number of reports the diagnosis was made after a necropsy. Professionals are warned about diverse and nonspecific clinical manifestations in different animal species, which underlines the importance of cryptococcosis in the differential diagnosis in clinical practice. Furthermore, it is necessary to encourage the use of laboratory and molecular tools to improve the diagnosis of cryptococcosis. We also emphasize the urgent need for standardized therapeutic protocols to guide veterinary clinicians.

This review compiles studies on cryptococcosis in domestic and wild animals. Most reports occurred in cats and koalas. Pulmonary and neurological involvement was predominant in all affected species, and C. gattii VGI and VGII stood out in the etiology of the disease.

Protothecosis in Veterinary Medicine: a minireview.

Protothecosis is an important infection caused by Prototheca spp., an alga that affect humans and animals. Prototheca spp. infections determine losses of production and quality of life for the affected animals. In this disease, prevention and early diagnosis are essential to avoid the spread of the agent to susceptible hosts. This review aimed to assemble the reported cases of protothecosis in Veterinary Medicine, highlighting Prototheca species involved in the infections, the main animal species affected, as well as the clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment. Our findings showed that protothecosis has been reported in various domestic and wild animal species, presenting diverse clinical manifestations, including mastitis in cows, respiratory manifestations in goats and cats, and a wide range of clinical signs in dogs. The clinical diagnosis and treatment of Prototheca spp. infections are difficult and infected animals are frequently discarded or euthanized. Due to the importance of this infection, protothecosis must be considered an important differential diagnosis in routine clinical Veterinary Medicine.

Oomicidal activity of polypyrrole nanoparticles against Pythium insidiosum.

This study evaluated in-vitro action of a new molecule, the polypyrrole nanoparticles (Ppy-NP), against Pythium insidiosum isolates using M38-A2/CLSI; the minimal inhibitory (MIC) and minimal oomicidal (MOC) concentrations were also determined. Additionally, changes in the hyphae wall of P. insidiosum CBS 575.85 treated with Ppy-NP were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The MIC100 and MOC for all isolates ranged from 8 to 32 µg mL-1, and the MIC90 and MIC50 were 16 µg mL-1. The SEM showed structural damage to the hyphae of P. insidisoum treated with Ppy-NP, as hyphae surfaces with less turgidity were found, thereby showing scaling and ruptures compared to the control (untreated hyphae). Our findings highlighted the anti-P. insidiosum properties of Ppy-NP proved to be a promising candidate for research using pythiosis experimental models.

Anti-Pythium insidiosum activity of bioactive compounds from medicinal plants.

Pythiosis is a serious disease caused by the aquatic oomycete Pythium insidiosum that mainly affects mammals. Unlike fungal and bacterial resistance induced by the indiscriminate use of drugs, P. insidiosum has low susceptibility to antifungal drugs. In this sense, essential oils and their major components emerge as a promising treatment line for this disease. Given the above, this study sought to verify P. insidiosum (n = 34) susceptibility to the bioactive compounds eugenol, α-terpineol, menthol, and carvacrol and correlate them with the respective essential oils of Eugenia caryophyllata, Melaleuca alternifolia, Mentha piperita, and Origanum vulgare. The essential oils and bioactive compounds were purchased commercially and tested according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute protocol M38-A2. Our findings showed that eugenol, α-terpineol, and carvacrol had superior anti-P. insidiosum action than their respective essential oils, suggesting that they may be responsible for inhibitory activity against P. insidiosum. Notably, the major compound with the best anti-P. insidiosum activity was α-terpineol; nonetheless, menthol showed less activity than its essential oil. The results imply that essential oils and their major compounds may be important allies in treating pythiosis, expanding the perspectives of developing new drugs with anti-P. insidiosum activity.

Influence of landscape structure on previous exposure to Leptospira spp. and Brucella abortus in free-living neotropical primates from southern Brazil.

The environments in which neotropical primates live have been undergoing an intense fragmentation process, constituting a major threat to the species' survival and causing resource scarcity, social isolation, and difficulty in dispersal, leaving populations increasingly vulnerable. Moreover, the proximity of wild environments to anthropized landscapes can change the dynamics of pathogens and the parasite-host-environment relationship, creating conditions that favor exposure to different pathogens. To investigate the previous exposure of free-living primates in Rio Grande do Sul State (RS), southern Brazil, to the bacterial agents Leptospira spp. and Brucella abortus, we investigated agglutinating antibodies against 23 serovars of Leptospira spp. using the microscopic agglutination test and B. abortus acidified antigen test in primate serum samples; 101 samples from primates captured between 2002 and 2016 in different forest fragments were used: 63 Alouatta caraya, 36 Alouatta guariba clamitans, and 02 Sapajus nigritus cucullatus. In addition, the forest remnants where the primates were sampled were characterized in a multiscale approach in radii ranging from 200 to 1400 m to investigate the potential relationship of previous exposure to the agent with the elements that make up the landscape structure. The serological investigation indicated the presence of antibodies for at least one of the 23 serovars of Leptospira spp. in 36.6% (37/101) of the samples analyzed, with titers ranging from 100 to 1600. The most observed serovars were Panama (17.8%), Ballum (5.9%), Butembo (5.9%), Canicola (5.9%), Hardjo (4.9%), and Tarassovi (3.9%); no samples were seropositive for Brucella abortus. Decreased forest cover and edge density were the landscape factors that had a significant relationship with Leptospira spp. exposure, indicating that habitat fragmentation may influence contact with the pathogen. The data generated in this study demonstrate the importance of understanding how changes in landscape structure affect exposure to pathogenic microorganisms of zoonotic relevance. Hence, improving epidemiological research and understanding primates' ecological role in these settings can help improve environmental surveillance and conservation strategies for primate populations in different landscapes.

Tremellomycetes isolated from organs of Columba livia.

Brain, lungs, and intestines of Columba livia captured in Brazil were analyzed for research on Tremellomycetes. Mycological culture presented the growth of colonies suggestive of Cryptococcus spp. in 11.60% (13/112) of the samples. Microscopy revealed capsulated yeast cells. Molecular analysis evidenced Papiliotrema flavescens, Naganishia diffluens, Filobasidium magnum, and Naganishia randhawae. Thermotolerance of Tremellomycetes isolates from brain and lung (n = 10) evidenced cell growth and viability at 37 °C. At 42 °C/24 h, these isolates showed viability, except for one P. flavescens isolate. Here, we report the first isolation of Tremellomycetes species from the brain and lungs of a healthy C. livia.

The study reported the first isolation of Tremellomycetes species, including P. flavescens, N. diffluens, F. magnum, and N. randhawae from the organs of domestic pigeons. All isolates expressed important virulence factors such as capsule and thermotolerance, indicating their pathogenic potential.

In vitro anti-Pythium insidiosum activity of amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, alone and in combination.

Pythium insidiosum infections have been widely studied in an attempt to develop an effective therapeutic protocol for the treatment of human and animal pythiosis. Several antifungal agents are still prescribed against this oomycete, although they present contradictory results. To evaluate the susceptibility profile and to verify the morphological alterations in P. insidiosum isolates treated with amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, alone or in combination. Susceptibility tests for P. insidiosum isolates (n = 20) against amorolfine hydrochloride (AMR) and azithromycin (AZM) were performed according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institutes (CLSI) protocol M38-A2. Combinations of both drugs were evaluated using the checkerboard microdilution method. Additionally, transmission and scanning electron microscopy were performed in order to verify the morphological alterations in P. insidiosum isolates in response to these drugs. All P. insidiosum isolates had a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 16 to 64 mg/l and 8 to 64 mg/l for amorolfine hydrochloride and azithromycin, respectively. Synergistic interactions between the drugs were not observed, with antagonism in 59.8% of isolates, and indifferent interactions in 36.2%. Electron microscopy showed changes in the surface of P. insidiosum hyphae, disorganization of intracellular organelles, and changes in the plasma membrane and cell wall of oomycetes treated with the drugs. This is the first study to demonstrate in vitro anti-P. insidiosum effect of amorolfine hydrochloride. These results indicate the therapeutic potential of this drug against cutaneous and subcutaneous forms of pythiosis, but further studies are necessary to confirm this potential.

In vitro algicidal effect of polypyrrole on Prototheca species isolates from bovine mastitisAlgicidal activity of polypyrrole on Prototheca spp.

Algae of the genus Prototheca are microorganisms involved in the occurrence of diseases in humans and animals. In bovine species, Prototheca spp. cause environmental mastitis, productive losses in dairy herds, mainly leading to the discard of infected cows. Currently, there are no effective anti-Prototheca spp. drugs to combat this infection. Thus, the search for an efficacious therapy for Prototheca spp. infections have become essential. Highly soluble polypyrrole (Ppy) is a molecule with known antimicrobial activity. This study aimed to characterize Prototheca spp. isolates from bovine mastitis as well as to evaluate the susceptibility profile and to verify the morphological alterations on Prototheca spp. isolates treated with Ppy. In this research, 36 Brazilian isolates of Prototheca spp. were characterized by restriction fragment length polymorphism polymerase chain reaction (RFLP-PCR) assay for the mitochondrial cytB gene. Additionally, Ppy algicidal activity against these isolates of Prototheca spp. was assessed by minimal microbicidal concentration method in microplates. Further, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed in order to verify the morphological alterations on Prototheca spp. isolates in response to Ppy. The isolates were characterized as belonging to Prototheca zopfii genotype 2 (35/36) and Prototheca blaschkeae (1/36). Ppy had an algicidal effect on all isolates tested at concentrations ranging from 15.625 µg ml-1 to 62.5 µg ml-1. SEM showed changes on planktonic and sessile P. zopfii, including a decrease of the number of cells with the presence of an amorphous substance involving the cells. The algicidal activity of Ppy suggests the therapeutic potential of this molecule in the prevention and treatment of Prototheca spp. in bovine mastitis.

Biogenic silver nanoparticles in the treatment of experimental pythiosis Bio-AgNP in pythiosis therapy.

Pythiosis is a rapidly progressing disease that can be lethal to affected individuals due to resistance to available therapeutic protocols. The disease affects mammals, with the largest number of reports in horses and humans. The present study investigated the activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles (bioAgNP) in the treatment of experimental pythiosis. The disease was reproduced in nine female 90-day-old New Zealand rabbits. Animals were divided into three groups: group1 (control, n = 3) daily and topically treated with a nonionized gel-based formulation and 1 ml of sterile distilled water intralesion administered every 48 hours; group 2 (n = 3), daily and topically treated with gel-based formulation containing 1 µg/ml bio-AgNP; group 3 (n = 3), treated with 1 ml bio-AgNP in 1 µg/ml aqueous solution intralesion administered every 48 hours. Animals were treated for 45 days, and the area of subcutaneous lesions was measured every 5 days. Results showed that groups 2 and 3 differed from control group (P < .05) in the lesion area, as well as the amount of hyphae within the lesions. It was observed that lesions of treated animals (groups 2 and 3) did not differ from each other, showing that the application route did not influence the regression of lesions. However, it was observed that one animal from group 2 reached clinical cure at 35 days of treatment. This research is pioneer in the application of nanocomposites for the treatment of experimental pythiosis and showed that bio-AgNP can be powerful allies of integrative medicine and can be included in pythiosis therapeutic protocols.

New insights on evolutionary aspects of Pythium insidiosum and other peronosporaleans.

BACKGROUND: The evolution of pathogenic mechanisms is a major challenge, which requires a thorough comprehension of the phylogenetic relationships of pathogens. Peronosporaleans encompasses a heterogeneous group of oomycetes that includes some animal/human pathogens, like Pythium insidiosum. OBJECTIVE: We analysed here the phylogenetic positioning and other evolutionary aspects related to this species and other peronosporaleans, using a multi-locus approach with one mitochondrial and three nuclear genes. METHODOLOGY: Phylogenetic patterns of 55 oomycetes were inferred by maximum likelihood and Bayesian analysis, and a relaxed molecular clock method was applied to infer the divergence time of some peronosporaleans branches. RESULTS: Pythium insidiosum was monophyletic with a major and polytomous clade of American isolates; however, Pythium spp. was found to be paraphyletic with Phytopythium sp. and Phytophthora spp. In general, peronosporaleans subdivided into four lineages, one of which evidenced a close relationship of P insidiosum, P aphanidermatum and P arrhenomanes. This lineage diverged about 63 million years ago (Mya), whereas P insidiosum diversified at approximately 24 Mya. The divergence of American and Thai isolates seems to have occurred at approximately 17 Mya, with further American diversification at 2.4 Mya. CONCLUSION: Overall, this study clarifies the phylogenetic relationships of P insidiosum regarding other peronosporaleans in a multi-locus perspective, despite previous claims that phylogenomic analyses are needed to accurately infer the patterns and processes related to the evolution of different lineages in this group. Additionally, this is the first time that a molecular clock was applied to study the evolution of P insidiosum.

Intradermal injection of Pythium insidiosum protein antigens for improved diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis in an experimental model.

The oomycetous pathogen Pythium insidiosum is the causative agent of pythiosis, a life-threatening disease that affects animals and humans. This infectious disease is difficult to treat, and early and accurate diagnosis is critical for effective treatment. In this sense, this study aimed to evaluate the intradermal (ID) injection of P. insidiosum protein antigens (PiPA) for the diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis using an experimental model. For diagnostic purposes, PiPA were injected by the ID route in the following groups of rabbits: (a) control; (b) previously immunized with PiPA injected by the subcutaneous (SC) route; and (c) infected with P. insidiosum zoospores. For treatment purposes, rabbits with pythiosis were also treated with PiPA by the ID or SC routes. Mean induration sizes were different at 24 h and 72 h readings when compared to the control group. Sensitivity of the protocol was 100% at 24 h and 80% at 72 h, with 100% specificity in both readings. PiPA treatment using ID or SC routes did not result in significant differences in lesion sizes and cure rates; however, serum levels of interferon-gamma were higher in SC route. This study demonstrates the applicability of PiPA ID for diagnosis and treatment of pythiosis in an experimental model.

Influence of temperature on in vitro zoosporogenesis of Pythium insidiosum.

This study verified the influence of different temperatures on P. insidiosum in vitro zoosporogenesis. P. insidiosum isolates (n = 26) were submitted to zoosporogenesis and incubated at 5°C, 15°C, 20°C and 37°C (1st stage). Grass fragments were evaluated under optical microscopy at 4, 8, and 24 hours of incubation. Afterward, all isolates were incubated at 37°C and assessed at the same periods of time (2nd stage). The development of hyphae, presence of vesicles, zoosporangia and zoospores were checked. Only the presence of short hyphae was observed at 5°C. At 15°C, the hyphae were either under development or elongated and two isolates produced zoospores. When the isolates were submitted to 20°C for 4 hours, the presence of long and mycelial hyphae, vesicles, zoosporangia and zoospores was observed, which also happened at the other periods evaluated. In the second stage, the isolates which were initially at 5°C and 15°C evidenced long developing hyphae with the presence of vesicles, zoosporangia, and zoospores within 4 hours of incubation, and these characteristics were kept at the other evaluated periods. The isolates kept at 37°C showed evident zoosporogenesis in the first 4 hours of evaluation. It was concluded that temperatures of 20°C and 37°C support P. insidiosum zoosporogenesis process. On the other hand, 5°C and 15°C temperatures do not kill the microorganism.

Protein profile of Brazilian Pythium insidiosum isolates.

Pythium insidiosum is an important aquatic Oomycota that causes pythiosis in mammals, especially horses, dogs, and humans; these inhabit marshy environments in tropical and subtropical areas. The aim of this study was to determine the protein profile, as well as identify likely immunodominant proteins, of Brazilian P. insidiosum isolates from southern Brazil, an important equine pythiosis endemic area. P. insidiosum isolates (horses, n = 20 and dogs, n = 02) were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot techniques. Horse, cattle, dog, and rabbit sera of both diseased and healthy animals were used to identify P. insidiosum proteins. SDS-PAGE protein profile detected antigens of molecular weights ranging from 100 to 20 KDa. Dog isolates revealed a protein profile similar to that of horse isolates. Anti-P. insidiosum antibodies in the sera of the four species could recognize proteins of different molecular weights (∼74 KDa to ∼24 KDa), and proteins ∼50-55 KDa and ∼34 KDa were shown to be immunodominant. Furthermore, ∼74 KDa, ∼60 KDa, ∼30 KDa and ∼24 KDa proteins were poorly recognized by host species antibodies. The Brazilian P. insidiosum isolates analyzed showed a similar protein profile; however, further studies are essential for the identification and characterization of proteins expressed by P. insidiosum, and an evaluation of the immunological profile of hosts susceptible to this Oomycota is necessary.

In vitro susceptibility of the oomycete Pythium insidiosum to metallic compounds containing cadmium, lead, copper, manganese or zinc.

Pythium insidiosum is an aquatic oomycete that causes pythiosis, an important and severe disease of difficult treatment that affects humans, domestic and wild animals. This infection is often described in horses in Brazil and humans in Thailand. In clinical practice, we have observed many cases that do not respond to available therapies, indicating the need to explore alternative therapeutic approaches. In this sense, studies using metal compounds in conjunction with available antimicrobial agents have been demonstrated greater antimicrobial activity. Thus, in this research, we tested in vitro activities of metallic compounds containing cadmium, lead, copper, manganese, or zinc against 23 isolates of P. insidiosum. The assays were performed by broth microdilution based on CLSI M38-A2 document. The minimum inhibitory and fungicidal concentrations were established for all isolates. Copper acetate and cadmium acetate showed the highest inhibitory effects, with minimal inhibitory concentration ranging from 4-64 µg/ml and 16-256 µg/ml, respectively. The mean geometric for minimal fungicidal concentrations were, respectively, 26 µg/ml and 111.43 µg/ml for copper acetate and cadmium acetate. These results suggest that copper and cadmium can inhibit P. insidiosum growth, highlighting the greater inhibitory activity of copper acetate. In addition, our results propose that copper and/or cadmium compounds can be used in upcoming researches to formulate effective new complexed drugs against P. insidiosum in in vitro and in vivo experimental models.

In vitro reproduction of the life cycle of Pythium insidiosum from kunkers' equine and their role in the epidemiology of pythiosis.

Pythium insidiosum is an important pathogen of mammals' species, including humans. Equine is the main species affected by this oomycete. P. insidiosum requires an aquatic environment to develop its life cycle, and the susceptible hosts are contaminated when they contact the microorganism in swampy areas. The equine pythiosis is characterized by the formation of irregular masses within the cutaneous lesions, called kunkers, which easily detach from the lesion. From these structures, it is possible to isolate P. insidiosum in pure cultures. The present study aimed to reproduce in vitro the life cycle of P. insidiosum from kunkers of equine clinical lesions. Fifteen kunkers from different horses were tested. It was observed that the discharge of zoospores occurred after 24-48 h of incubation at 37 °C in, respectively, 40 and 47 % of the kunkers evaluated. Only two samples showed no development of the asexual cycle of P. insidiosum under the conditions tested. It was possible to demonstrate that kunkers are able to restart the asexual cycle of P. insidiosum. Based on our in vitro results, we highlight the importance of these structures in the epidemiology of the pythiosis, since kunkers can be a potential source of contamination of this oomycete for aquatic environments.

Pythium insidiosum: In vitro oomicidal evaluation of telithromycin and interactions with azithromycin and amorolfine hydrochloride.

This study evaluated the repositioning of the ketolide antibacterial telithromycin (TLT) against the oomycete Pythium insidiosum and verified the combination of TLT and the antimicrobials azithromycin (AZM) and amorolfine hydrochloride (AMR), which have known anti-P. insidiosum activity. Susceptibility tests of P. insidiosum isolates (n = 20) against the drugs were carried out according to CLSI protocol M38-A2, and their combinations were evaluated using the checkerboard microdilution method. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0.5-4 µg/mL for TLT, 2-32 µg/mL for AZM, and 16-64 µg/mL for AMR. For the TLT+AZM combination, 52.75 % of interactions were indifferent, 43.44 % were antagonistic, and 9.70 % were synergistic. As for interactions of the TLT+AMR combination, 60.43 % were indifferent, 39.12 % were antagonistic, and 10.44 % synergistic interactions. This study is the first to evaluate the repositioning of the antibacterial TLT against mammalian pathogenic oomycetes, and our results show that its isolated action is superior to its combinations with either AZM or AMR. Therefore, we recommend including TLT in future research to evaluate therapeutic approaches in different clinical forms of human and animal pythiosis.

Detection of anti-Leishmania spp. antibodies in poultry from central region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

Domestic birds such as Gallus gallus, Meleagris gallopavo, Anser anser and Numida meleagris are widely distributed throughout the world and maintain contact with humans and other animal species considered reservoirs of both Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL) and American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis (ATL), including dogs and cats; wild canids, marsupials; and synanthropic animals such as rodents and chiroptera. Therefore, this study aimed to detect the presence of anti-Leishmania spp. antibodies in birds from a rural area of the municipality of Santa Maria, southern Brazil. From May to December 2022, 262 blood samples were collected from 244 chickens, 8 turkeys, 7 guinea fowl and 3 geese, distributed in 27 rural properties in 6 districts. All the sites visited presented positive birds for the presence of Leishmania spp. Thus, it is inferred that, contact with this protozoan can induce the production of antibodies, suggesting that these animals can be used as sentinels for the circulation of this agent. In addition, the blood of these animals is a preferred food source for insects of the subfamily Phlebotominae, which can be used them as bioindicators of the presence of these phlebotomes.

Detection of Sarcocystis spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in swine and detection of DNA of these protozoa in tissues and sausages.

The seroprevalence of Sarcocystis spp. and Toxoplasma gondii was researched in swine raised in Santa Maria, RS, Brazil. Serum samples from 84 pigs from 31 farms were tested using indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) for both agents. Additionally, 53 samples of pork sausages and tissues destined for human consumption, including: salami, sausage, black pudding, heart, tongue, brain, and rib muscle, were submitted to PCR to detect DNA for each agent. The frequency of anti-Sarcocystis spp. antibodies was 36.9% (31/84), with titers ranging from 32 to 1024, and 25% (21/84) for anti-T. gondii antibodies, with titers ranging from 64 to 2048. Sarcocystis spp. and T. gondii DNA were detected in 67.9% (36/53) and 13.2% (7/53) of samples, respectively. The presence of antibodies and the detection of DNA from Sarcocystis spp., and T. gondii suggests that the pigs were infected and may serve as an important reservoir for both parasites. The infection by these protozoa in the swine population is relevant to public health due to their zoonotic potential.

Multiple resistance in equine cyathostomins: a case study from military establishments in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

Semi-intensive equine breeding system favors gastrointestinal nematode infections. The treatment of these infections is based on the use of anthelmintics. However, the inappropriate use of these drugs has led to parasitic resistance to the available active principles. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the main classes of antiparasitic (ATP) used in control in adult and young animals, including: benzimidazoles (fenbendazole), pyrimidines (pyrantel pamoate), macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin and moxidectin), as well as the combination of active ingredients (ivermectin + pyrantel pamoate). The study was carried out in two military establishments, located in Rio Grande do Sul (RS), from January to December, 2018. The intervals between the treatments of the animals were performed from 30 to 90 days. Coproparasitological evaluations were determined by the egg count reduction in the faeces. Cyatostomine larvae were identified in pre and post-treatment cultures. The results demonstrated the multiple parasitic resistance of cyathostomins to fenbendazole, moxidectin in young animals, and to fenbendazole, pyrantel pamoate in adult animals. Thus, it is necessary to define or diagnose parasitic resistance to assist in the creation of prophylactic parasitic control, using suppressive treatment with ATP associated with integrated alternatives. The progress of parasitic resistance can be slowed.

Imported hepatopulmonary echinococcosis: first report of Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto (G1) in Bolivia.

Hepatopulmonary hydatidosis in young children is a rare and atypical presentation of Echinococcus granulosus infection. We report the first case of cystic echinococcosis caused by a microvariant of E. granulosus sensu stricto. Chemotherapy and systemic corticoids were administered before curative surgery was performed. Recurrence was not observed for more than 24 months of follow-up.