Assessing Student Performance Using a Novel Rubric Based on the Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition.

OBJECTIVE: Pharmacy student performance on practicum was previously assessed using a Likert scale from 0 to 9, resulting in challenges with clarity and assessor subjectivity. To address these issues, an assessment rubric based on the Dreyfus model of skill acquisition was developed and implemented. This study sought to evaluate student, practice educator (PE), and faculty perceptions related to the rubric's effectiveness in assessing student performance within the direct patient care practicum setting. METHODS: An exploratory sequential mixed methods approach was used. A qualitative component using focus groups and semistructured interviews was followed by a quantitative component using a survey questionnaire. Data gathered from the qualitative component were collectively analyzed and used to inform questionnaire development intended to confirm identified themes and collect further data on stakeholder perceptions. RESULTS: A total of 7 students, 7 PEs, and 4 faculty participated in the focus groups/interviews and 70 of 645 (10.9%) students and 103 of 756 (13.6%) PEs participated in the survey questionnaire. The majority of the participants felt that the rubric clearly communicated the expectations for student performance, is relevant and consistent with pharmacy practice, and is useful in accurately assessing performance. For PEs with experience, the novel rubric was an improvement over the previous assessment processes and perceived as more thorough and clearer in describing performance expectations. The identified challenges included the rubric's visual organization, length, and redundancy of some of the assessment elements. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that a novel rubric based on the Dreyfus model is effective in assessing student performance on practicum and may address some of the challenges commonly observed with performance assessment.

Contribution of Pharmacy Practice Residents to Resolution of Drug Therapy Problems for Patients: RES-DTP Study.

BACKGROUND: Canadian pharmacy practice residency programs promote development of key competencies for direct patient care resulting in resolution of drug therapy problems (DTPs), which is 1 of 8 national clinical pharmacy key performance indicators. There are no Canadian data on the contribution of residents to resolution of DTPs, including DTPs for priority diseases covered in disease-state education modules (PD-DTPs) or quality indicator DTPs (QI-DPTs), as assessed through application of evidence-based interventions proven to reduce morbidity, mortality, or health resource utilization. OBJECTIVE: To describe the contribution of pharmacy practice residents to direct patient care using 3 process-of-care measures: resident-resolved DTPs, PD-DTPs, and QI-DTPs. METHODS: This prospective, observational single-group study was conducted across 5 rotation sites within the authors' health authority from September 2, 2013, to June 13, 2014. The primary outcome was number of DTPs resolved. The secondary outcomes were number of PD-DTPs resolved; number of QI-DTPs resolved; numbers of DTPs, PD-DTPs, and QI-DTPs resolved over time; and residents' satisfaction with electronic tracking of resolved DTPs (in terms of training, usability, efficiency, and time requirements). RESULTS: Four residents completed a total of twenty-one 4-week rotations and resolved a total of 1201 DTPs. Of these, 620 (52%) were PD-DTPs and 479 (40%) were QI-DTPs. Overall, the number of interventions increased for rotations 1-3, decreased for rotations 4 and 5, and increased again for rotation 6. The median score for all questions in all domains of the satisfaction survey was 4 out of 5 ("agree"). CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacy practice residents were resolving DTPs, PD-DTPs, and QI-DTPs for patients and were contributing significantly to direct patient care. On the basis of literature evidence, the number and type of interventions observed in this study would be expected to improve clinical and health economic outcomes for patients.

CONTEXTE: Les programmes de résidence canadiens en pratique pharmaceutique encouragent le développement de compétences clés relatives aux soins directs offerts aux patients. Ces compétences entraîneront la résolution des problèmes de pharmacothérapie (DTP), l'un des huit indicateurs clés nationaux de rendement relatifs à la pharmacie clinique. Il n'existe pas de données canadiennes portant sur la contribution des résidents à la résolution des problèmes de pharmacothérapie, notamment ceux relatifs aux maladies prioritaires (PD-DTP) couverts dans les modules d'éducation sur les problèmes de santé, ou les indicateurs de qualité des DTP (QI-DPT), évalués au moyen d'interventions fondées sur des données scientifiques dont il a été prouvé qu'elles réduisaient la morbidité, la mortalité ou l'utilisation des ressources sanitaires. Dans une étude, les intervenants avaient des opinions divergentes concernant la contribution des résidents à la résolution des DTP, des PD-DTP et des QI-DTP. OBJECTIF: Décrire la contribution des résidents dans le cadre de la pratique pharmaceutique des soins directs offerts aux patients à l'aide de trois mesures spécifiques du processus des soins : DTP, PD-DTP et QI-DTP résolus par les résidents. MÉTHODES: Cette étude prospective par observation portant sur un seul groupe a été menée dans cinq sites de rotation compris dans la sphère d'autorité sanitaire des auteurs, du 2 septembre 2013 au 13 juin 2014. Le résultat principal était le nombre de DTP résolus. Les résultats secondaires étaient les suivants : nombre de PD-DTP résolus; nombre de QI-DTP résolus; nombre de DTP, de PD-DTP et de QI-DTP résolus avec le temps; et la satisfaction des résidents à l'égard du suivi électronique de leurs DTP résolus (en termes de formation, de facilité d'utilisation, d'efficacité et d'exigences en matière de temps). RÉSULTATS: Quatre résidents ont effectué un total de 21 rotations de quatre semaines et ont résolu 1201 DTP. De ceux-ci, 620 (52 %) étaient des PD-DTP et 479 (40 %), des QI-DTP. Les interventions générales ont augmenté de la 1re à la 3e rotation; elles ont diminué à la 4e et à la 5e rotation; elles ont à nouveau augmenté à la 6e rotation. Le score moyen de toutes les questions posées dans l'enquête de satisfaction, tous domaines confondus, était de 4 sur 5 (ou « d'accord ¼). CONCLUSIONS: Les résidents en pratique pharmaceutique résolvaient les DTP, les PD-DTP et les QI-DTP des patients et contribuaient de manière significative aux soins directs aux patients. Sur base de la documentation, on pourrait s'attendre à ce que le nombre et le type d'interventions observées dans cette étude améliorent les résultats cliniques et sanitaires des patients.

Improving the Clinical Pharmacist Handover Process in the Intensive Care Unit with a Pharmacotherapy-Specific Tool: The I-HAPPY Study.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacists in the intensive care unit (ICU) provide pharmaceutical care to critically ill patients. Identification and resolution of drug therapy problems improves outcomes for these patients. To maintain continuity of care, pharmacotherapy plans should be transferred to a receiving pharmacist upon discharge of patients from the ICU. No previous studies have addressed the development or evaluation of a systematic, standardized clinical handover tool and process for pharmacists. OBJECTIVES: To assess pharmacists' satisfaction with and utilization of a pharmacotherapy-specific handover tool and process. METHODS: Plan-do-study-act methodology was employed to develop a clinical handover tool and process, which were implemented in a Canadian health authority. For evaluation of the tool and process, a multicentre, online survey questionnaire was distributed to 14 clinical pharmacists in the ICU and ward settings at 5 hospitals between February 15 and April 22, 2016. RESULTS: Thirteen of the pharmacists completed the survey. All 13 pharmacists (100%) were satisfied with usability; 12 (92%) were satisfied with training, organization, and accuracy of the process; and 11 (85%) were satisfied with completeness and efficiency. Most pharmacists conducted 1 or 2 handovers per week, with each having a duration of 3-5 min. Seven (54%) of the respondents reported that they communicated handovers mostly or exclusively by telephone, and 6 (46%) reported using mostly or exclusively face-to-face communication. However, 6 (46%) reported a preference for face-to-face communication, and 3 (23%) reported a preference for the telephone; the remaining 4 (31%) had no preference for mode of communication. CONCLUSIONS: Respondents were highly satisfied with the handover tool and process. ICU pharmacists appeared more satisfied with the training, organization, and completeness of handover, whereas ward pharmacists appeared more satisfied with the accuracy and efficiency of handover. Workload requirements were minimal, and face-to-face interaction, although slightly less well utilized than the telephone, was the preferred method of communication.

CONTEXTE: Les pharmaciens exerçant dans les unités de soins intensifs (USI) prodiguent des soins pharmaceutiques aux patients gravement malades. Or, déceler et résoudre les problèmes pharmacothérapeutiques améliore les résultats cliniques pour ces patients. Afin de maintenir la continuité des soins, les plans pharmacothérapeutiques doivent être communiqués au moment du congé des patients de l'USI à un autre pharmacien qui prendra ensuite le relais. Aucune étude n'avait auparavant étudié la mise au point ou l'évaluation d'un outil et d'un processus normalisés de transfert des soins à être utilisés systématiquement par les pharmaciens. OBJECTIFS: Évaluer le taux de satisfaction des pharmaciens à l'égard d'un outil et d'un processus destinés au transfert des soins pharmacothérapeutiques et en analyser leur utilisation. MÉTHODES: La méthodologie planifier-exécuter-étudier-agir a été employée pour mettre au point un outil et un processus de transfert clinique introduits dans une régie de santé canadienne. Afin d'évaluer l'outil et le processus, un sondage en ligne a été présenté à 14 pharmaciens cliniciens travaillant soit dans les USI soit dans d'autres services intrahospitaliers de 5 hôpitaux, entre le 15 février et le 22 avril 2016. RÉSULTATS: Treize pharmaciens ont rempli le sondage. Les 13 (100 %) étaient satisfaits de la facilité d'emploi; 12 (92 %) étaient satisfaits de la formation, de l'organisation et de l'exactitude du processus; et 11 (85 %) étaient satisfaits du degré d'exhaustivité et de l'efficacité. La plupart des pharmaciens réalisaient 1 ou 2 transferts par semaine, chacun d'une durée de 3 à 5 minutes. Sept (54 %) répondants ont indiqué qu'ils communiquaient les transferts surtout ou seulement par téléphone et 6 (46 %) ont dit le faire surtout ou uniquement en personne. Or, 6 (46 %) ont indiqué une préférence pour la communication en personne et 3 (23 %) ont dit préférer la voie téléphonique. Les 4 (31 %) autres étaient indifférents au mode de communication utilisé. CONCLUSIONS: Les répondants étaient grandement satisfaits de l'outil et du processus de transfert. Les pharmaciens exerçant dans les USI semblaient plus satisfaits de la formation, de l'organisation et du degré d'exhaustivité du transfert alors que les pharmaciens travaillant dans d'autres services intra-hospitaliers semblaient plus satisfaits de l'exactitude et de l'efficacité du transfert. La charge de travail était minimalement accrue et la communication en personne, bien qu'utilisée moins fréquemment que celle par téléphone, était le mode préféré.

Positive and Negative Impacts of a Continuing Professional Development Intervention on Pharmacist Practice: A Balanced Measure Evaluation.

INTRODUCTION: Evaluations of behavior change interventions aimed at improving professional practice are increasingly focused on impacts at the practice and patient outcome levels. Many of these evaluations assume that if the intended changes occur, the result represents an improvement. However, given the systemic nature of clinical practice, a change in one area can produce changes in other areas as well, some of which may adversely affect the patient. Balancing measures are used to determine whether unintended consequences of an intervention have been introduced into other areas of the system. The aims of this study were to evaluate the impact of behavior change intervention-based continuing professional development (CPD) on pharmacist interventions (resolution of drug therapy problems-DTPs) and resolution of quality indicator DTPs and knowledge change for urinary tract infections (UTI) and pneumonia. As a balancing measure, we aimed to determine whether delivery of behavior change interventions targeting pneumonia and UTI practice results in a negative impact on other important pharmacist interventions, specifically the resolution of heart failure DTPs. METHODS: A quasiexperimental study was conducted at a Canadian health authority that evaluated the impacts of an 8-week multifaceted behavior change intervention delivered to 58 ward-based pharmacists. The primary outcome was change in proportion of UTI and pneumonia DTPs resolved from the 6-month preintervention to 6-month postintervention phase. Secondary outcomes were changes in proportion of UTI and pneumonia quality indicator DTPs resolved, knowledge quiz scores, and proportion of quality indicator DTPs resolved for heart failure as a balancing measure. RESULTS: A total of 58 pharmacists were targets of the intervention. The proportion of resolved UTI and pneumonia DTPs increased from 17.8 to 27.2% (relative risk increase 52.8%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 42.8-63.6%; P < 0.05). The proportion of resolved UTI and pneumonia quality indicator DTPs increased from 12.2% to 18.2% (relative risk increase 49.9%, 95% CI 34.5-67.0%; P < 0.05). Resolved heart failure DTPs decreased from 14.3 to 8.5% (RRR 40.4%, 95% CI 33.9-46.2%; P < 0.05). Thirty-six pharmacists completed the pre- and post-quiz. Scores increased from 11.3/20 ± 3.2/20 to 14.8/20 ± 2.9/20 (P < 0.05). DISCUSSION: CPD using a multifaceted behavior change intervention improved pharmacist behavior and knowledge for UTI and pneumonia. However, these improvements may be offset by reduced interventions for other disease states, such as heart failure. Strategies to mitigate the unintended effects on other professional behaviors should be implemented when delivering CPD focused on changing one aspect of professional behavior.

Limited sampling strategies for mycophenolic acid in solid organ transplantation: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is the active metabolite of mycophenolate mofetil, a widely used immunosuppressant. Numerous studies have developed limited sampling strategies (LSSs) to predict MPA AUC in solid organ transplant recipients. OBJECTIVES: To systematically review and assess quality of literature pertaining to MPA LSSs, evaluate clinical implications and provide suggestions for future research. METHODS: Literature searches of MEDLINE (1966 - May 2009) and EMBASE (1980 - May 2009) for English articles in solid organ transplantation, along with manual review of article references were conducted. Included articles were categorized according to criteria adapted from levels of evidence of the US Preventative Services Task Force. RESULTS: Of a total of 29 studies identified, 20 were in kidney, 4 in heart, 4 in liver and 1 in lung transplantation and 7 were in pediatrics. A total of 14 studies were deemed to be Level I evidence studies, 3 were Level II-1, 1 was Level II-2 and 11 were Level III. CONCLUSIONS: Although various LSSs that are well correlated to MPA AUC while being relatively unbiased and precise to predict MPA AUC have been developed, further research is needed to determine validity of these LSSs in a variety of patient populations and to determine if these LSSs improve patient outcomes.