Parental history of moderate to severe infantile malnutrition is associated with cognitive deficits in their adult offspring.

OBJECTIVES: We compared the IQ and academic achievement of the young adult offspring of parents malnourished in infancy and those of a healthy control group in order to test the hypothesis that the offspring of previously malnourished individuals would show IQ and academic deficits that could be related to reduced parental socioeconomic status. METHODS: We conducted a group comparison study based on a community sample in Barbados (Barbados Nutrition Study). Participants were adult children ≥16 years of age whose parents had been malnourished during the first year of life (n = 64; Mean age 19.3 years; 42% male) or whose parents were healthy community controls (n = 50; Mean age 19.7 years; 48% male). The primary outcome was estimated IQ (Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence); a secondary outcome was academic achievement (Wide Range Achievement Test - Third Edition). Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED with and without adjusting for parental socioeconomic status (Hollingshead Index of Social Position). RESULTS: IQ was reduced in the offspring of previously malnourished parents relative to the offspring of controls (9.8 point deficit; P < 0.01), but this difference was not explained by parental socioeconomic status or parental IQ. The magnitude of the group difference was smaller for basic academic skills and did not meet criteria for statistical significance. DISCUSSION: The deleterious impact of infant malnutrition on cognitive function may be transmitted to the next generation; however, this intergenerational effect does not appear to be explained by the reduced socioeconomic status or IQ of the parent generation.

Impaired IQ and academic skills in adults who experienced moderate to severe infantile malnutrition: a 40-year study.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate IQ and academic skills in adults who experienced an episode of moderate-to-severe infantile malnutrition and a healthy control group, all followed since childhood in the Barbados Nutrition Study. METHODS: IQ and academic skills were assessed in 77 previously malnourished adults (mean age = 38.4 years; 53% male) and 59 controls (mean age = 38.1 years; 54% male). Group comparisons were carried out by multiple regression and logistic regression, adjusted for childhood socioeconomic factors. RESULTS: The previously malnourished group showed substantial deficits on all outcomes relative to healthy controls (P < 0.0001). IQ scores in the intellectual disability range (< 70) were nine times more prevalent in the previously malnourished group (odds ratio = 9.18; 95% confidence interval = 3.50-24.13). Group differences in IQ of approximately one standard deviation were stable from adolescence through mid-life. DISCUSSION: Moderate-to-severe malnutrition during infancy is associated with a significantly elevated incidence of impaired IQ in adulthood, even when physical growth is completely rehabilitated. An episode of malnutrition during the first year of life carries risk for significant lifelong functional morbidity.

Malnutrition in the first year of life and personality at age 40.

BACKGROUND: Early childhood malnutrition is associated with cognitive and behavioral impairment during childhood and adolescence, but studies in adulthood are limited. METHODS: Using the NEO-PI-R personality inventory, we compared personality profiles at 37-43 years of age (M 40.3 years, SD 1.9) of Barbadian adults who had experienced moderate-to-severe protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) in the first year of life (n = 77) with healthy controls, who were former classmates of the index cases and were matched for age, gender, and handedness in childhood (n = 57). The previously malnourished participants had been rehabilitated, with good health and nutrition documented up to 12 years of age, and study participants were followed longitudinally from childhood to 40 years. Group comparisons were adjusted for childhood and adolescent standard of living, with and without correcting for IQ. RESULTS: At the broad domain or factor level, previously malnourished participants had higher scores on Neuroticism and lower scores on Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness than did the healthy controls. At the subdomain or facet level, previously malnourished participants reported more anxiety, vulnerability, shyness and lowered sociability, less intellectual curiosity, greater suspiciousness of others, a more egocentric than altruistic orientation, and a lowered sense of efficacy or competence. CONCLUSIONS: Malnutrition limited to the first year of life with good health and nutrition documented up to 12 years of age is associated with a significant overrepresentation of adult personality trait scores outside of the average range. This outcome has important implications for a variety of important life and mental health outcomes.

Early childhood malnutrition impairs adult resting brain function using near-infrared spectroscopy.

Introduction: Early childhood malnutrition affects 200+ million children under 5 years of age worldwide and is associated with persistent cognitive, behavioral and psychiatric impairments in adulthood. However, very few studies have investigated the long-term effects of childhood protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) on brain function using a functional hemodynamic brain imaging technique. Objective and methods: This study aims to investigate functional brain network alterations using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in adults, aged 45-51 years, from the Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) who suffered from a single episode of malnutrition restricted to their first year of life (n = 26) and controls (n = 29). A total of 55 individuals from the BNS cohort underwent NIRS recording at rest. Results and discussion: Using functional connectivity and permutation analysis, we found patterns of increased Pearson's correlation with a specific vulnerability of the frontal cortex in the PEM group (ps < 0.05). Using a graph theoretical approach, mixed ANCOVAs showed increased segregation (ps = 0.0303 and 0.0441) and decreased integration (p = 0.0498) in previously malnourished participants compared to healthy controls. These results can be interpreted as a compensatory mechanism to preserve cognitive functions, that could also be related to premature or pathological brain aging. To our knowledge, this study is the first NIRS neuroimaging study revealing brain function alterations in middle adulthood following early childhood malnutrition limited to the first year of life.

Spectral quantitative and semi-quantitative EEG provide complementary information on the life-long effects of early childhood malnutrition on cognitive decline.

Objective: This study compares the complementary information from semi-quantitative EEG (sqEEG) and spectral quantitative EEG (spectral-qEEG) to detect the life-long effects of early childhood malnutrition on the brain. Methods: Resting-state EEGs (N = 202) from the Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) were used to examine the effects of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) on childhood and middle adulthood outcomes. sqEEG analysis was performed on Grand Total EEG (GTE) protocol, and a single latent variable, the semi-quantitative Neurophysiological State (sqNPS) was extracted. A univariate linear mixed-effects (LME) model tested the dependence of sqNPS and nutritional group. sqEEG was compared with scores on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Stable sparse classifiers (SSC) also measured the predictive power of sqEEG, spectral-qEEG, and a combination of both. Multivariate LME was applied to assess each EEG modality separately and combined under longitudinal settings. Results: The univariate LME showed highly significant differences between previously malnourished and control groups (p < 0.001); age (p = 0.01) was also significant, with no interaction between group and age detected. Childhood sqNPS (p = 0.02) and adulthood sqNPS (p = 0.003) predicted MoCA scores in adulthood. The SSC demonstrated that spectral-qEEG combined with sqEEG had the highest predictive power (mean AUC 0.92 ± 0.005). Finally, multivariate LME showed that the combined spectral-qEEG+sqEEG models had the highest log-likelihood (-479.7). Conclusion: This research has extended our prior work with spectral-qEEG and the long-term impact of early childhood malnutrition on the brain. Our findings showed that sqNPS was significantly linked to accelerated cognitive aging at 45-51 years of age. While sqNPS and spectral-qEEG produced comparable results, our study indicated that combining sqNPS and spectral-qEEG yielded better performance than either method alone, suggesting that a multimodal approach could be advantageous for future investigations. Significance: Based on our findings, a semi-quantitative approach utilizing GTE could be a valuable diagnostic tool for detecting the lasting impacts of childhood malnutrition. Notably, sqEEG has not been previously explored or reported as a biomarker for assessing the longitudinal effects of malnutrition. Furthermore, our observations suggest that sqEEG offers unique features and information not captured by spectral quantitative EEG analysis and could lead to its improvement.

Infant malnutrition is associated with persisting attention deficits in middle adulthood.

Infantile malnutrition is known to be associated with cognitive and behavioral impairment during childhood and adolescence. Data pertaining to longer-term effects on behavioral outcomes in adulthood are limited. In this study, we report associations between infantile malnutrition and attention problems in adults at midlife. Attention problems were assessed by the Conners Adult ADHD Rating Scales (CAARS) and the Conners Continuous Performance Test (CPT) in 145 Barbadian adults (aged 37-43 y) who had been followed longitudinally since childhood. Previously malnourished participants (n = 80) had experienced moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition in the first year of life and were successfully rehabilitated thereafter. They were compared with healthy adults (n = 65) who were former classmates of the index cases and who had been matched for age, sex, and handedness in childhood. Multiple regression analyses showed persisting effects of childhood malnutrition on both the CAARS and the CPT, independent of effects of household standard of living assessed in childhood. The malnutrition effect on the CAARS ratings was independent of IQ, whereas this effect was attenuated for the CPT after adjustment for IQ. Teacher-reported attention problems in childhood predicted attention problems in adulthood, indicating continuity over the life span. Infantile malnutrition may have long-term effects on attentional processes nearly 40 y after the episode, even with excellent long-term nutritional rehabilitation and independent of socioeconomic conditions in childhood and adolescence. This finding has major public health implications for populations exposed to early childhood malnutrition.

Infant malnutrition predicts conduct problems in adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of conduct problems in a well-documented sample of Barbadian adolescents malnourished as infants and a demographic comparison group and to determine the extent to which cognitive impairment and environmental factors account for this association. METHODS: Behavioral symptoms were assessed using a 76-item self-report scale in 56 Barbadian youth (11-17 years of age) with histories of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) limited to the first year of life and 60 healthy classmates. Group comparisons were carried out by longitudinal and cross-sectional multiple regression analyses at 3 time points in childhood and adolescence. RESULTS: Self-reported conduct problems were more prevalent among previously malnourished youth (P < 0.01). Childhood IQ and home environmental circumstances partially mediated the association with malnutrition. Teacher-reported classroom behaviors at earlier ages were significantly correlated with youth conduct problems, confirming the continuity of conduct problems through childhood and adolescence. DISCUSSION: Self-reported conduct problems are elevated in children and adolescents with histories of early childhood malnutrition. Later vulnerability to increased conduct problems appears to be mediated by the more proximal neurobehavioral effects of the malnutrition on cognitive function and by adverse conditions in the early home environment.

Impact of Early Childhood Malnutrition on Adult Brain Function: An Evoked-Related Potentials Study.

More than 200 million children under the age of 5 years are affected by malnutrition worldwide according to the World Health Organization. The Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) is a 55-year longitudinal study on a Barbadian cohort with histories of moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) limited to the first year of life and a healthy comparison group. Using quantitative electroencephalography (EEG), differences in brain function during childhood (lower alpha1 activity and higher theta, alpha2 and beta activity) have previously been highlighted between participants who suffered from early PEM and controls. In order to determine whether similar differences persisted into adulthood, our current study used recordings obtained during a Go-No-Go task in a subsample of the original BNS cohort [population size (N) = 53] at ages 45-51 years. We found that previously malnourished adults [sample size (n) = 24] had a higher rate of omission errors on the task relative to controls (n = 29). Evoked-Related Potentials (ERP) were significantly different in participants with histories of early PEM, who presented with lower N2 amplitudes. These findings are typically associated with impaired conflict monitoring and/or attention deficits and may therefore be linked to the attentional and executive function deficits that have been previously reported in this cohort in childhood and again in middle adulthood.

Early malnutrition predicts parent reports of externalizing behaviors at ages 9-17.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether externalizing behaviors are more prevalent in youth who have experienced an episode of malnutrition in the first year of life than in healthy comparison youth. METHOD: Parents of previously malnourished youth and a matched healthy comparison group completed a behavior rating scale when the youth were 9-15 years of age and again, 2 years later, when they were 11-17 years of age. Longitudinal multiple regression analysis was applied to evaluate group differences adjusted for baseline age, sex, household standard of living, and maternal depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Early childhood malnutrition was associated with problems in executive functioning at both occasions. Malnutrition also predicted discernibly higher parent-reported levels of aggression toward peers at 9-15 years than at 11-17 years. These findings were independent of baseline age, sex, household standard of living, and maternal depressive symptoms. Problem behaviors in general decreased during follow-up. CONCLUSION: Parents report persisting problems with executive functioning through adolescence in youth who suffered an episode of moderate-to-severe protein-energy malnutrition in the first year of life, while reports of aggression, although more common when this cohort were younger, did not persist at follow-up.

Intergenerational effects of childhood maltreatment and malnutrition on personality maladaptivity in a Barbadian longitudinal cohort.

Childhood adversities are linked with mental health problems throughout the life course, including personality pathology. Less is known about consequences in the next generation, particularly in non-Western populations. In the Barbados Nutrition Study, we assessed associations of two parental (G1) childhood adversities- (1) maltreatment history using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF), and (2) clinically ascertained infant malnutrition limited to the first year of life-on PD symptoms in their G2 offspring, using NEO FFM PD prototypes. In linear regression models clustered by family and adjusted for other G1 childhood adversities and family socioeconomic status, we found that G1 parental history of childhood maltreatment was significantly associated with increased G2 offspring Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic, and Dependent PD scores. When G1 childhood malnutrition was the exposure of interest, we found a significant association with Schizoid PD scores. When the sample was restricted to offspring of G1 mothers, even more extensive associations with G2 personality pathology were observed. This study supports a link between parental exposure to childhood adversities and increased personality maladaptivity in the next generation, with some specific patterns worthy of further exploration.

Childhood malnutrition and maltreatment are linked with personality disorder symptoms in adulthood: Results from a Barbados lifespan cohort.

Both childhood malnutrition and maltreatment are associated with mental health problems that can persist into adulthood. Previously we reported that in Barbados, those with a history of infant malnutrition were more likely to report having experienced childhood maltreatment. Few studies, however, address the long-term outcomes of those who have been exposed to both. We assessed the unique and combined associations of a history of early malnutrition and childhood maltreatment with personality pathology in mid-adulthood in participants of the 47-year longitudinal Barbados Nutrition Study. We used the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis II Personality Disorders Personality Questionnaire (SCID-II-PQ) and NEO Personality Inventory-Revised derived Five-Factor Model (NEO PI-R FFM) personality disorder (PD) scores to assess personality pathology, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF) to assess childhood maltreatment, and clinical documentation of malnutrition in infancy. We tested the associations of malnutrition and maltreatment with PD scores using linear regression models, unadjusted and adjusted for other childhood adversities. We found increased scores for paranoid, schizoid, avoidant, and dependent PDs among those who had been malnourished and increased scores for paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, and avoidant PDs among those with higher childhood maltreatment scores. Overall, those exposed to both adversities had even greater PD scores.

Seeking Biomarkers of Early Childhood Malnutrition's Long-term Effects.

Protein-energy malnutrition affects one in nine people worldwide and is most prevalent among children aged less than five years in low-income countries. Early childhood malnutrition can have damaging neurodevelopmental effects, with significant increases in cognitive, neurological and mental health problems over the lifespan, outcomes which can also extend to the next generation. This article describes a research collaboration involving scientists from five centers in Barbados, China, Cuba and the USA. It builds on longer-term joint work between the Barbados Nutrition Study (which, over a 45-year span, has extensively documented nutritional, health, behavioral, social and economic outcomes of individuals who experienced protein-energy malnutrition in the first year of life and healthy controls from the same classrooms and neighborhoods) and the Cuban Neuroscience Center (which has developed low-cost brain imaging methods that can be readily used in low income settings to identify biomarkers for early detection and treatment of adverse consequences of childhood malnutrition). This collaboration, which involved Barbadian, Cuban and US scientists began in the 1970s, when quantitative EEG techniques were applied to EEG data collected in 1977-78, at which time study participants were aged 5-11 years. These EEG records were never fully analyzed but were stored in New York and made available to this project in 2016. These data have now been processed and analyzed, comparing EEG findings in previously malnourished and control children, and have led to the identification of early biomarkers of long-term effects of early childhood protein-energy malnutrition. The next stage of the project will involve extending earlier work by collecting EEG recordings in the same individuals at ages 45-51 years, 40 years later, and comparing findings to earlier data and to these individuals' behavioral and cognitive outcomes. Quantitative EEG biomarkers of the effects of protein-energy malnutrition may help identify children at greatest risk for early malnutrition's adverse neurodevelopmental effects and inform development of targeted interventions to mitigate the long-term adverse effects of protein-energy malnutrition in developing countries. KEYWORDS Protein-energy malnutrition, electroencephalography, EEG, biomarkers, neurosciences, Barbados, Cuba, USA.

Quantitative EEG Tomography of Early Childhood Malnutrition.

The goal of this study is to identify the quantitative electroencephalographic (qEEG) signature of early childhood malnutrition [protein-energy malnutrition (PEM)]. To this end, archival digital EEG recordings of 108 participants in the Barbados Nutrition Study (BNS) were recovered and cleaned of artifacts (46 children who suffered an episode of PEM limited to the first year of life) and 62 healthy controls). The participants of the still ongoing BNS were initially enrolled in 1973, and EEGs for both groups were recorded in 1977-1978 (at 5-11 years). Scalp and source EEG Z-spectra (to correct for age effects) were obtained by comparison with the normative Cuban Human Brain Mapping database. Differences between both groups in the z spectra (for all electrode locations and frequency bins) were assessed by t-tests with thresholds corrected for multiple comparisons by permutation tests. Four clusters of differences were found: (a) increased theta activity (3.91-5.86 Hz) in electrodes T4, O2, Pz and in the sources of the supplementary motor area (SMA); b) decreased alpha1 (8.59-8.98 Hz) in Fronto-central electrodes and sources of widespread bilateral prefrontal are; (c) increased alpha2 (11.33-12.50 Hz) in Temporo-parietal electrodes as well as in sources in Central-parietal areas of the right hemisphere; and (d) increased beta (13.67-18.36 Hz), in T4, T5 and P4 electrodes and decreased in the sources of bilateral occipital-temporal areas. Multivariate Item Response Theory of EEGs scored visually by experts revealed a neurophysiological latent variable which indicated excessive paroxysmal and focal abnormality activity in the PEM group. A robust biomarker construction procedure based on elastic-net regressions and 1000-cross-validations was used to: (i) select stable variables and (ii) calculate the area under ROC curves (AUC). Thus, qEEG differentiate between the two nutrition groups (PEM vs Control) performing as well as visual inspection of the EEG scored by experts (AUC = 0.83). Since PEM is a global public health problem with lifelong neurodevelopmental consequences, our finding of consistent differences between PEM and controls, both in qualitative and quantitative EEG analysis, suggest that this technology may be a source of scalable and affordable biomarkers for assessing the long-term brain impact of early PEM.

Relationship between infant malnutrition and childhood maltreatment in a Barbados lifespan cohort.

Childhood malnutrition and maltreatment (abuse, neglect) are both prevalent, particularly in resource-limited settings. Despite their known negative impact on child development, there is surprisingly little research documenting their interrelationships. To address this gap, we administered the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF), a retrospective structured self-report of childhood abuse and neglect, in a Barbadian cohort of 77 adult survivors of infant malnutrition, limited to the first year of life, and 62 healthy controls from the same classrooms and neighborhoods (mean age ± SD = 43.8±2.3 years). This cohort has been followed since birth. Using factor analysis and comparison with archival data addressing similar constructs, we found evidence for reliability and validity of the CTQ-SF in this population. Linear regression analyses, with and without adjusting for childhood household standard of living at three childhood ages, revealed that a history of infant malnutrition was significantly associated with increased levels of self-reported physical neglect in childhood, and, to a somewhat lesser degree, emotional neglect. This study highlights the co-occurrence of infant malnutrition and self-reported maltreatment in childhood in Barbados, with potential public health implications.

DNA Methylation Signatures of Early Childhood Malnutrition Associated With Impairments in Attention and Cognition.

BACKGROUND: Early childhood malnutrition affects 113 million children worldwide, impacting health and increasing vulnerability for cognitive and behavioral disorders later in life. Molecular signatures after childhood malnutrition, including the potential for intergenerational transmission, remain unexplored. METHODS: We surveyed blood DNA methylomes (~483,000 individual CpG sites) in 168 subjects across two generations, including 50 generation 1 individuals hospitalized during the first year of life for moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition, then followed up to 48 years in the Barbados Nutrition Study. Attention deficits and cognitive performance were evaluated with the Connors Adult Attention Rating Scale and Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. Expression of nutrition-sensitive genes was explored by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction in rat prefrontal cortex. RESULTS: We identified 134 nutrition-sensitive, differentially methylated genomic regions, with most (87%) specific for generation 1. Multiple neuropsychiatric risk genes, including COMT, IFNG, MIR200B, SYNGAP1, and VIPR2 showed associations of specific methyl-CpGs with attention and IQ. IFNG expression was decreased in prefrontal cortex of rats showing attention deficits after developmental malnutrition. CONCLUSIONS: Early childhood malnutrition entails long-lasting epigenetic signatures associated with liability for attention and cognition, and limited potential for intergenerational transmission.

Neuropsychological outcomes at midlife following moderate to severe malnutrition in infancy.

OBJECTIVE: To compare neuropsychological profiles of adults who had experienced an episode of moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition confined to the first year of life with that of a healthy community comparison group. METHOD: We assessed neuropsychological functioning in a cohort of Barbadian adults, all of whom had birth weight >2268 g. The previously malnourished group (N = 77, mean age = 38 years, 53% male) had been hospitalized during the first year of life for moderate to severe protein energy malnutrition and subsequently enrolled in a program providing nutrition education, home visits and subsidized foods to 12 years of age. They also had documented, adequate nutrition throughout childhood and complete catch-up in growth by the end of adolescence. The healthy comparison group (N = 59, mean age = 38 years, 54% male) were recruited as children from the same classrooms and neighborhoods. RESULTS: Adjusted for effects of standard of living during childhood and adolescence and current intellectual ability level, there were nutrition group differences on measures of cognitive flexibility and concept formation, as well as initiation, verbal fluency, working memory, processing speed, and visuospatial integration. Behavioral and cognitive regulation were not affected. CONCLUSIONS: Postnatal malnutrition confined to the first year of life is associated with neurocognitive compromise persisting into midlife. Early malnutrition may have a specific neuropsychological signature, affecting response initiation to a somewhat greater extent than response inhibition.

MATERNAL DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS IN CHILDHOOD AND OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE IN ADULTHOOD.

We examined the role of maternal depressive symptoms reported during childhood as a predictor of an important personality trait, Openness to Experience (O), in middle adulthood. Participants were 95 adults (38 previously malnourished, 57 control, mean age 42.1 years) who had been followed longitudinally since childhood by the Barbados Nutrition Study. Maternal depressive symptoms had been measured when the participants were 5-11 years of age by the General Adjustment and Morale Scale; O was measured in adulthood by the Revised NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). Multiple regression analyses, adjusted for childhood household standard of living, showed a significant main effect on O of maternal depressive symptoms (p < 0.01). Maternal depression also attenuated the significant effect of childhood malnutrition by 14%. Maternal depressive symptoms in childhood may therefore play a causal role in adult personality, in particular Openness to Experience, with implications for creativity.

Socioeconomic outcomes in adults malnourished in the first year of life: a 40-year study.

OBJECTIVE: Lifelong functional, adaptive, and economic outcomes of moderate to severe infantile malnutrition are not well known. We assessed social status and income at midlife in a cohort of Barbadian adults, hospitalized for protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) during the first year of life, with good nutrition and health thereafter, in the context of a 40-year longitudinal case-control study. We also examined to what extent childhood IQ mediated any group differences. METHODS: Educational achievement, occupational status, and standard of living were assessed by the Hollingshead scales and a site-specific Ecology Questionnaire in Barbadian adults (aged 37-43 years) with a history of malnutrition (n = 80) and a matched healthy control group (n = 63), classmates of the index cases. Malnutrition effects, adjusted for childhood standard of living, were estimated by longitudinal multiple regression analyses, with and without childhood IQ, in the models. RESULTS: PEM predicted poorer socioeconomic outcomes with medium to large effect sizes (0.50-0.94), but childhood IQ substantially attenuated the magnitude of these effects (adjusted effect sizes: 0.17-0.34). The gap in weekly household income between the PEM and control groups increased substantially over the life span (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Moderate to severe PEM during the first year of life with adequate nutrition and health care thereafter is associated with significant depression of socioeconomic outcomes in adulthood, mediated in part by cognitive compromise in affected individuals. This finding underscores the potential long-term economic burden of infant malnutrition, which is of major concern given the continued high prevalence of malnutrition worldwide.

Cognitive impairment as a mediator in the developmental pathway from infant malnutrition to adolescent depressive symptoms in Barbadian youth.

OBJECTIVE: Depressive symptoms are elevated in adolescents who experienced significant malnutrition early in life. Early malnutrition can also have a significant impact on cognitive functioning, presumably because of the adverse impact of the malnutrition on the very young brain. In the context of a developmental cascade model, we tested the hypothesis that the association between early malnutrition and adolescent depressive symptoms is mediated by the cognitive impairment that ensues from the malnutrition. METHODS: We evaluated Barbadian youth (N = 57) hospitalized for moderate to severe protein-energy malnutrition in the first year of life and healthy controls (N = 60) longitudinally. The primary hypothesis was tested by multiple regression models. RESULTS: After adjusting for covariates, early malnutrition predicted both cognitive functioning in childhood (IQ, p < .001; attention problems, p < .01; Common Entrance Examination, p < .01; and adolescent depressive symptoms, p < .05). Childhood cognitive functioning mediated the association between early malnutrition and depressive symptoms in adolescence (p < .001). Maternal depressive symptoms were a significant but independent predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms (p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive compromise in childhood accounts indirectly for elevated depressive symptoms in previously malnourished adolescents, consistent with a developmental cascade model. The direct link between malnutrition and depressive symptoms in adolescence is small.

A comparison of the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of first admissions to the psychiatric hospital and the psychiatric unit of the General Hospital in Barbados, over the period 1st September, 1996 to 28th February 1997: a project report submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Doctor of Medicine degree in Psychiatry

A comparison of the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of first admissions to the Psychiatric Unit of the General Hospital in Barbados, over the period 1st September, 1996 to 28th February, 1997 (AU)