Risk factors for curable sexually transmitted infections among youth: findings from the STICH population survey in Zimbabwe.

OBJECTIVES: Youth are at high risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in Africa. We aimed to determine the risk factors for curable STIs in youth in Zimbabwe. METHODS: A population-based survey was conducted among randomly selected 18-24 year-olds in 16 communities across two provinces in Zimbabwe to ascertain outcomes for a cluster randomised trial investigating the impact of community-based STI screening for youth on population prevalence of STIs. Participants underwent an interviewer-administered questionnaire, HIV testing and screening for Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) and Trichomonas vaginalis (TV). Risk factors for curable STIs were explored through multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 5601 participants, 62.5% (n=3500) were female, and the median age was 20 (IQR 19-22) years. HIV prevalence was 6.3% (351/5556), and 55.4% (1939/3501) reported condomless sex at last intercourse. Only 7.2% (401/5599) reported STI symptoms, but CT/NG/TV prevalence was 19.8% (1107/5601). On multivariable analysis, factors associated with STI diagnosis included being aged 21-24 years (adjusted OR (aOR) 1.37, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.61); female sex (aOR 2.11, 95% CI 1.76 to 2.53); being unemployed/informally employed (compared with in education/formal employment) (aOR 1.35, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.61); increasing number of sexual partners in the preceding 12 months (one partner: aOR 2.23, 95% CI 1.73 to 2.88; two partners: aOR 2.39, 95% CI 1.69 to 3.39); living with HIV (aOR 1.44, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.94); and previous attempted suicide (aOR 1.58, 95% CI 1.08 to 2.32). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of STIs among youth in Zimbabwe is high, particularly among those with HIV. In addition to moving away from syndromic STI management and strengthening implementation of existing prevention tools, there is a need for a more holistic focus on broader risk factors such as mental health and employment opportunities, and of integration of HIV and STI programming. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN15013425, NCT03719521.

Safe inhalation pipe provision (SIPP): protocol for a mixed-method evaluation of an intervention to improve health outcomes and service engagement among people who use crack cocaine in England.

BACKGROUND: Over 180,000 people use crack cocaine in England, yet provision of smoking equipment to support safer crack use is prohibited under UK law. Pipes used for crack cocaine smoking are often homemade and/or in short supply, leading to pipe sharing and injuries from use of unsafe materials. This increases risk of viral infection and respiratory harm among a marginalised underserved population. International evaluations suggest crack pipe supply leads to sustained reductions in pipe sharing and use of homemade equipment; increased health risk awareness; improved service access; reduction in injecting and crack-related health problems. In this paper, we introduce the protocol for the NIHR-funded SIPP (Safe inhalation pipe provision) project and discuss implications for impact. METHODS: The SIPP study will develop, implement and evaluate a crack smoking equipment and training intervention to be distributed through peer networks and specialist drug services in England. Study components comprise: (1) peer-network capacity building and co-production; (2) a pre- and post-intervention survey at intervention and non-equivalent control sites; (3) a mixed-method process evaluation; and (4) an economic evaluation. Participant eligibility criteria are use of crack within the past 28 days, with a survey sample of ~ 740 for each impact evaluation survey point and ~ 40 for qualitative process evaluation interviews. Our primary outcome measure is pipe sharing within the past 28 days, with secondary outcomes pertaining to use of homemade pipes, service engagement, injecting practice and acute health harms. ANTICIPATED IMPACT: SIPP aims to reduce crack use risk practices and associated health harms; including through increasing crack harm reduction awareness among service providers and peers. Implementation has only been possible with local police approvals. Our goal is to generate an evidence base to inform review of the legislation prohibiting crack pipe supply in the UK. This holds potential to transform harm reduction service provision and engagement nationally. CONCLUSION: People who smoke crack cocaine in England currently have little reason to engage with harm reduction and drug services. Little is known about this growing population. This study will provide insight into population characteristics, unmet need and the case for legislative reform. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN12541454  https://doi.org/10.1186/ISRCTN12541454.

HIV prevention in individuals engaged in sex work.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: People who sell sex remain at disproportionate risk of acquiring HIV and should be prioritized for evidence-based HIV prevention programmes delivered at sufficient scale and intensity for effectiveness. Although new biomedical tools are becoming available, many basic lessons learned early in the HIV pandemic remain salient today and need renewed attention. RECENT FINDINGS: New preexposure prophylaxis formulations, distribution systems, and delivery mechanisms are being successfully trialled and implemented, adding to well established prevention tools such as male and female condoms and lubricants. The importance of social support networks and community ownership of programmes has been consistently reaffirmed. Serious challenges remain in optimizing HIV prevention for sex workers, including providing services at the scale and intensity necessary for population level impact, addressing culturally sensitive issues of gender identity and sexual orientation, and protecting adolescents and young people who may sell sex. Pervasive social stigma, often reinforced by criminalization and police harassment, further constrain sex workers' access to available services and prevention tools. SUMMARY: Meaningful community engagement and addressing the multiple social determinants of vulnerability at individual, community, and structural levels remain at the core of preventing HIV among people involved in selling sex.

Accidental traffickers: qualitative findings on labour recruitment in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The growth of labour migration and associated risks of human trafficking and exploitation remain significant global human rights and health challenges. There is increasing policy interest in addressing structural determinants of adverse migration outcomes such as migrants' use of informal employment recruiters. In Ethiopia, "safe migration" policies have introduced regulations for registered private employment agencies and penalties for anyone else placing migrants into work overseas. Yet migrants continue to use informal facilitators who are often demonised as traffickers without evidence of their motivations, experiences or perceptions. We conducted qualitative interviews with 28 informal facilitators as part of a study into how recruitment practices shape risks for female migrants seeking domestic work in the Middle East and Gulf States. We present the realities of irregular recruitment on the ground, and how these practices are affected by policies that dichotomise recruiters into legal/safe and illegal/unsafe categories. RESULTS: We identified four main themes. First, arranging migration from rural areas differs from in the capital, Addis Ababa, where laws and regulations originate. Outside Addis Ababa, registration was difficult for facilitators to arrange, with little incentive to do so due to its lack of importance to prospective migrants. Second, the ability to circumvent legal requirements was considered an advantage of informal facilitators because it reduced costs and expedited migrants' departure. Third, facilitators did not work alone but operated in long "chains" of diverse actors. This meant migrants' safety was not determined by any given individual, but spread across numerous people involved in sending a migrant abroad, some of whom might be registered and others not. And finally, facilitators did not believe they could realistically safeguard migrants once they were outside of Ethiopia and working under different laws and employers. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study add to a growing body of work demonstrating the diversity of people involved in the migration process, and consequent oversimplification of popular policy solutions. A more effective approach might be to constructively engage informal facilitators and identify ways they could assist with referring migrant workers to registered agencies and safe employment, rather than criminalising their participation.

Facilitators and barriers to engaging with the DREAMS initiative among young women who sell sex aged 18-24 in Zimbabwe: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) are at high risk of contracting HIV and exchanging sex for financial or material support heightens their risk. In Zimbabwe, the DREAMS initiative integrated education and employment opportunities within HIV health promotion and clinical services for vulnerable young women, including those who sell sex. While most participants accessed health services, fewer than 10% participated in any social programmes. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with 43 young women aged 18-24 to understand their experiences of engaging with the DREAMS programme. We purposively sampled participants for diversity in level of education, type and location of selling sex. We analysed the data by applying the Theoretical Domains Framework to explore facilitators and barriers to engaging with DREAMS. RESULTS: Eligible women were motivated by hopes of escaping poverty, and their longer-term engagement was sustained through exposure to new social networks, including friendships with less vulnerable peers. Barriers included opportunity costs and expenses such as transport or equipment required for job placements. Participants also described pervasive stigma and discrimination related to their involvement in selling sex. Interviews highlighted the young women's struggles in a context of entrenched social and material deprivation and structural discrimination that hindered their ability to take up most of the social services offered. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that while poverty was a key driver of participation in an integrated package of support, it also constrained the ability of highly vulnerable young women to benefit fully from the DREAMS initiative. Multi-layered HIV prevention approaches such as DREAMS that seek to alter complex and longstanding social and economic deprivation address many of the challenges faced by YWSS but will only succeed if the underlying drivers of HIV risk among YWSS are also addressed.

Interrupted Access to and Use of Family Planning Among Youth in a Community-Based Service in Zimbabwe During the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had serious impacts on economic, social, and health systems, and fragile public health systems have become overburdened in many countries, exacerbating existing service delivery challenges. This study describes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on family planning services within a community-based integrated HIV and sexual and reproductive health intervention for youth aged 16-24 years being trialled in Zimbabwe (CHIEDZA). It examines the experiences of health providers and clients in relation to how the first year of the pandemic affected access to and use of contraceptives.

Understanding early uptake of PrEP by female sex workers in Zimbabwe.

Female sex workers (FSW) are prioritised for increased access to pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), although rates of uptake remain sub-optimal, particularly across Southern Africa. In the first two years of its availability in Zimbabwe, 37.1% of FSW in trial sites initiated PrEP and received at least one re-supply. We conducted a qualitative study on perceptions of PrEP among 19 early users selected from sites with varying rates of PrEP initiation. Narrative interviews examined the pathways taken by FSW from hearing about PrEP, through their decision to start taking it, and early experiences. FSW appreciated PrEP's introduction within familiar and trusted "friendly" services tailored for sex workers and valued positive encouragement from clinic staff and peers over negative influence from family members. They also found PrEP difficult to understand at first, and feared side effects and rare adverse complications described in information leaflets. While FSW identified individual strategies for remembering to take their medication, they also relied on structured peer adherence support, leading some FSW to actively promote the method to other FSW as "PrEP champions". Information on how early users experience a new prevention technology such as PrEP can inform design of interventions that leverage existing support structures and target key barriers.

Changes Over Time in HIV Prevalence and Sexual Behaviour Among Young Female Sex-Workers in 14 Sites in Zimbabwe, 2013-2016.

Young female sex-workers (FSW) aged 18-24 are at high risk of HIV due to high numbers of sexual partners, difficulty negotiating condom use, increased risk of gender-based violence, and limited access to services. Here we describe changes in sexual behaviours among young FSW across Zimbabwe between 2013 and 2016, and risk factors for prevalent HIV in 2013 and 2016. FSW ≥ 18 years were recruited using respondent-driven sampling in 14 sites across Zimbabwe in 2013 and 2016 as part of the SAPPH-IRe trial. We collected data on socio-demographics and sexual behaviour and offered HIV testing. Statistical analyses were RDS-II weighted. Characteristics of young FSW aged 18-24 were described, stratified by age. Logistic regression was used to assess difference in sexual behaviours by reported HIV status between 2013 and 2016, and to explore associations with prevalent HIV in 2013 and 2016. 656 young FSW were recruited in 2013 and 503 in 2016. Characteristics of young FSW were similar across both surveys. HIV prevalence was similar at both time points (35% vs 36%) and rose steeply with age. Compared to young FSW in 2013, reported condom-less sex with a steady partner and condom-less sex with clients was higher in 2016 among women self-reporting HIV negative status (OR = 6.41; 95%CI: 3.40-12.09; P<0.001) and (OR = 1.69; 95%CI: 1.14-2.51, P = 0.008), respectively, but not among young FSW self-reporting HIV positive status (OR = 2.35; 95%CI: 0.57-9.76; P = 0.236) and (OR = 1.87; 95%CI: 0.74-4.74; P = 0.186). After adjusting for age in 2016, young FSW who had ever been married had increased odds of testing HIV positive (OR = 1.88; 95% CI 1.04-3.39; P = 0.036) compared with those who had never married. Young FSW who completed secondary education or higher were less likely to test HIV positive (OR = 0.41; 95% CI 0.20-0.83; P = 0.012) compared with those with primary education or less. Young FSW remain at very high risk of HIV. Strategies to identify young FSW when they first start selling and refer them into services that address their economic, social and sexual vulnerabilities are critical.

"It is not possible to go inside and have a discussion": how fear of stigma affects delivery of community-based support for children's HIV care.

Caregivers mediate children's access to HIV care and their adherence to treatment. Support for caregivers may improve health outcomes in children, but fear of HIV stigma and discrimination can affect both uptake and delivery of support services. Within a trial evaluating community-based support for caregivers of newly HIV diagnosed children in Harare, Zimbabwe, we conducted a longitudinal qualitative study to explore how stigma affected delivery and acceptance of the intervention. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 36 caregivers, 15 children, and 20 community health workers (CHWs). Children and caregivers described experiencing or witnessing stigma and discrimination, causing some to resist home visits by CHWs. Anxiety around stigma made it difficult for CHWs to promote key messages. In response, CHWs adapted the intervention by meeting caregivers outside the home, pretending to be friends or relatives, and proactively counteracting stigmatising beliefs. As members of local communities, some CHWs shared concerns about discrimination. HIV stigma can hinder "getting a foot over the threshold" in community-based programmes, particularly for households most affected by discrimination and thus least likely to engage with services. For community support programmes to be effective, stigma-related resistance should be addressed from the outset, including CHWs' own concerns regarding HIV stigma.

Familial silence surrounding HIV and non-disclosure of HIV status to older children and adolescents.

Increasing numbers of children with HIV are surviving to adolescence and beyond, many of whom are orphaned. Disclosure of childrens' and adolescents' HIV status has been shown to improve adherence and retention in HIV treatment programmes. We investigated caregiving arrangements and intra-familial experience of HIV and its relationship to HIV disclosure to older children and adolescents. Children aged 6-15 years, newly diagnosed with HIV infection or previously diagnosed but not engaged in HIV care, were recruited from seven primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Their caregivers responded to a nurse-led questionnaire. Family history of HIV, disclosure of HIV status to the child and reasons for non-disclosure were ascertained. The association between sociodemographics, caregiving, family HIV history and other characteristics and non-disclosure of HIV status to the child was determined using univariate and multivariate logistic regression. We recruited 385 participants, median age = 11 years (IQR: 9-13); 52% were female. Disclosure had occurred in 79% of children aged 11-15 years and 19% of children aged 6-10 years. Age under 11 years (adjusted OR [aOR] = 18.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 10.64-33.55; p < 0.001), being male [aOR]= 2.56, 95% CI = 1.49-4.54; p = 0.001, being unaware of the parents' HIV status [aOR]= 32.42, 95% CI = 13.19-79.71; p < 0.001, and being newly diagnosed [aOR]= 2.52, 95% CI = 1.29-4.91; p = 0.007, were independently associated with non-disclosure. Disclosure outside of the family occurred infrequently and included friends of family (7%), school teacher (8%), school headmaster (4%) and church pastor (6%). High non-disclosure rates were present as well as a lack of discussion about HIV within the family. Disclosure outside of family was low reflecting difficulty in caregivers' ability to discuss HIV with their child or surrounding community. HIV programmes need to support families in the disclosure process.

Evaluating the impact of DREAMS on HIV incidence among young women who sell sex: protocol for a non-randomised study in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: "Determined, Resilient, AIDS-free, Mentored and Safe" (DREAMS) is a package of biomedical, social and economic interventions offered to adolescent girls and young women aged 10-24 years with the aim of reducing HIV incidence. In four of the six DREAMS districts in Zimbabwe, DREAMS includes an offer of oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (DREAMS+PrEP), alongside interventions to support demand and adherence, to women aged 18-24 who are at highest risk of HIV infection, including young women who sell sex (YWSS). This evaluation study addresses the question: does the delivery of DREAMS+PrEP through various providers reduce HIV incidence among YWSS Zimbabwe? We describe our approach to designing a rigorous study to assess whether DREAMS+PrEP had an impact on HIV incidence. METHODS: The study design needed to account for the fact that: 1) DREAMS+PrEP was non-randomly allocated; 2) there is no sampling frame for the target population for the evaluation; 3) there are a small number of DREAMS districts (N = 6), and 4) DREAMS+PrEP is being implemented by various providers. The study will use a cohort analysis approach to compare HIV incidence among YWSS in two DREAMS+PrEP districts to HIV incidence among YWSS in non-DREAMS comparison sites. YWSS will be referred to services and recruited into the cohort through a network-based (respondent-driven) recruitment strategy, and followed-up 12- and 24-months after enrolment. Women will be asked to complete a questionnaire and offered HIV testing. Additional complications of this study include identifying comparable populations of YWSS in the DREAMS+PrEP and non-DREAMS comparison sites, and retention of YWSS over the 24-month period. The primary outcome is HIV incidence among YWSS HIV-negative at study enrolment measured by repeat, rapid HIV testing over 24-months. Inference will be based on plausibility that DREAMS+PrEP had an impact on HIV incidence. A process evaluation will be conducted to understand intervention implementation, and document any contextual factors determining the success or failure of intervention delivery. DISCUSSION: HIV prevention products of known efficacy are available. Innovative studies are needed to provide evidence of how to optimise product use through combination interventions to achieve population impact within different contexts. We describe the design of such a study.

"I will not stop visiting!" a qualitative study of community health workers' reluctance to withdraw household support following the end of a community-based intervention in Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Community Health Worker (CHW) programmes are increasingly important in HIV service delivery. CHWs' familiarity with the local context can improve intervention acceptability and sustainability but concerns have been raised about potential exploitation and "burnout" of CHWs as they become emotionally involved in clients' lives. Little attention has been paid to what happens at the end of time-limited CHW interventions. This study aimed to examine the experience of CHWs' withdrawal from clients and their families. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative study of CHWs' experiences of "exiting" from households during the ZENITH (Zimbabwe Study for Enhancing Testing and Improving Treatment of HIV in Children) intervention, which provided 12 structured home visits over 72 weeks to families with children recently diagnosed with HIV. We conducted semi-structured interviews at 12 and 18 months with all 19 CHWs delivering the intervention and 36 purposively selected caregivers who received home visits. Analysis focused on perceptions of the end of the trial, when CHWs completed the scheduled home-based visits and there was no guarantee of programme continuation beyond the study. RESULTS: Termination of scheduled home visits caused significant distress to both CHWs and the households they visited. We identify 3 thematic "lessons learned" for CHW programmes. First, CHWs derived pride and self-worth from emotional labour as they became integral to families' improved ability to cope, motivating them to go beyond formal job requirements. Second, clients' growing dependence on CHWs led to "exit" being interpreted as abandonment by both CHWs and households, causing distress on both sides. Finally, in response to anxiety about "abandoning" families, CHWs maintained contact with families long after scheduled withdrawal of services. CONCLUSIONS: CHWs can forge genuine bonds with households, creating expectations of long-term engagement. On the positive side, CHW derive pride from their work, attach social responsibility to their roles, and feel personal fulfilment in supporting families. If CHWs do not disengage from interventions as planned, or become demoralised by "exits", interventions will prove less sustainable. CHWs are often lauded for their ability to develop trust with peers, yet this willingness and ability to create enduring emotional bonds could threaten programme delivery.

Learning from returnee Ethiopian migrant domestic workers: a qualitative assessment to reduce the risk of human trafficking.

BACKGROUND: International migration has become a global political priority, with growing concern about the scale of human trafficking, hazardous work conditions, and resulting psychological and physical morbidity among migrants. Ethiopia remains a significant "source" country for female domestic workers to the Middle East and Gulf States, despite widespread reports of exploitation and abuse. Prior to introduction of a "safe migration" intervention, we conducted formative research to elicit lessons learned by women who had worked as domestic workers abroad. The aim of the study was to identify realistic measures future migrants could take to protect themselves, based on the collective insights and experience of returnees. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative assessment among returnee domestic labour migrants in Amhara Region, Ethiopia, an area considered a "hotspot" for outmigration. We conducted in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with a total of 35 female returnees, exploring risk and protective factors experienced by Ethiopian women during domestic work abroad. We used thematic content analysis to identify practical messages that could improve prospective migrants' preparedness. RESULTS: Returnees described the knowledge and skills they acquired prior to departure and during migration, and shared advice they would give to prospective migrants in their community. Facilitators of positive migration included conforming to cultural and behavioural expectations, learning basic Arabic, using household appliances, and ensuring safety in employers' homes. Respondents also associated confidence and assertiveness with better treatment and respect, and emphasized the importance of access to external communication (e.g. a mobile phone, local sim card, and contact details) for help in an emergency. Following their own challenging or even traumatic experiences, returnees were keen to support resilience among the next wave of migrants. CONCLUSIONS: There is little evidence on practices that foster safer migration, yet attention to human trafficking has led to an increase in pre-migration interventions. These require robust evidence about local risk and protective factors. Our findings identify knowledge, skills, attributes and resources found useful by returnee domestic workers in Amhara region, and have been used to inform a community-based programme aiming to foster better decision-making and preparation, with potential to offer insights for safer migration elsewhere.

Underage and underserved: reaching young women who sell sex in Zimbabwe.

Young women who sell sex (YWSS) in Southern Africa are highly vulnerable to HIV, as the risks of being young and female in a high prevalence setting coalesce with those of commercial sex. YWSS are less able to negotiate safe sex, more likely to have higher risk partners, and less likely to use available health services compared to older sex workers. In Zimbabwe's national HIV programme for sex workers, fewer than 1% of clients were 15-29. We developed monthly interactive workshops for YWSS based on an Activity Pack consisting of 21 sessions organised into six modules. The aim was to encourage YWSS' interaction with each other, build their trust, confidence and skills, and encourage uptake of clinical services. We conducted a process evaluation to assess programme strengths, identify challenges, and recommend changes. This paper presents findings synthesising programme records with qualitative data and discusses feasibility, acceptability, and outputs during the pilot phase. In total, 143 YWSS attended meetings and most were from the target 15-19-year-old age group. Participants enjoyed the sessions and reported improved cooperation, willingness to negotiate with clients, and self-reflection about their futures. Staff found facilitating sessions easy and activities clear and appropriate. Challenges included identifying appropriate referrals, initial recruitment of women in some sites, and managing participants' requests for financial compensation. The number of clients aged 15-19 increased at sex worker clinics in all sites. This programme is the first to target YWSS in Zimbabwe to address their disproportionately low service use. It proved feasible to staff and acceptable to participants over a one-year period. Given enhanced vulnerability of YWSS, this programme provides one workable model for reaching this underserved group.

Competition is not necessarily a barrier to community mobilisation among sex workers: an intervention planning assessment from Zimbabwe.

BACKGROUND: Community mobilization among female sex workers (SWs) is recognized as an effective strategy to empower SWs and increase their uptake of health services. Activities focus on increasing social cohesion between SWs by building trust, strengthening networks, and encouraging shared efforts for mutual gain. Several studies, however, suggest that high levels of interpersonal competition between SWs can pose a barrier to collective action and support. We conducted a study to examine levels of perceived competition between SWs in Mutare, Hwange and Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe in order to inform development of a community-based intervention for HIV prevention and treatment. This paper focuses on our qualitative findings and their implications for the design of HIV programming in the Zimbabwean context. METHODS: Following a respondent driven sampling (RDS) survey, we explored issues related to social cohesion amongst SWs in Mutare, Hwange and Victoria Falls through in-depth interviews conducted with 22 SWs. Interviews examined dynamics of SWs' relationships and extent of social support, and were analyzed using thematic content analysis using the constant comparative method. Findings are contextualised against descriptive data extracted from the survey, which was analysed using Stata 12, adjusting for RDS. RESULTS: Across all sites, women described protecting each other at night, advising each other about violent or non-paying clients, and paying fines for each other following arrest. In Mutare, women gave additional examples, including physically attacking problem clients, treatment adherence support and shared saving schemes. However, interviews also highlighted fierce competition between women and deep mistrust. This reflects the reported mix of competition and support from the survey of 836 women (Mutare n = 370, Hwange n = 237, Victoria Falls n = 229). In Mutare, 92.8 % of SWs agreed there was a lot of competition; 87.9 % reported that SWs support each other. This contrasted with Victoria Falls and Hwange where fewer agreed there was competition between SWs (70.5 % and 78.0 %), but also fewer reported that SWs support each other at work (55.2 % and 51.2 %). CONCLUSIONS: Women reported being most likely to support each other when confronted with serious danger but maintained high levels of competition for clients, suggesting competition at work does not represent a barrier to support. Examples of practical assistance between SWs provide entry points for our planned community mobilization activities, which aim to broaden trust and support among SWs while acknowledging their professional competition.

Barriers to provider-initiated testing and counselling for children in a high HIV prevalence setting: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: There is a substantial burden of HIV infection among older children in sub-Saharan Africa, the majority of whom are diagnosed after presentation with advanced disease. We investigated the provision and uptake of provider-initiated HIV testing and counselling (PITC) among children in primary health care facilities, and explored health care worker (HCW) perspectives on providing HIV testing to children. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Children aged 6 to 15 y attending six primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe, were offered PITC, with guardian consent and child assent. The reasons why testing did not occur in eligible children were recorded, and factors associated with HCWs offering and children/guardians refusing HIV testing were investigated using multivariable logistic regression. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with clinic nurses and counsellors to explore these factors. Among 2,831 eligible children, 2,151 (76%) were offered PITC, of whom 1,534 (54.2%) consented to HIV testing. The main reasons HCWs gave for not offering PITC were the perceived unsuitability of the accompanying guardian to provide consent for HIV testing on behalf of the child and lack of availability of staff or HIV testing kits. Children who were asymptomatic, older, or attending with a male or a younger guardian had significantly lower odds of being offered HIV testing. Male guardians were less likely to consent to their child being tested. 82 (5.3%) children tested HIV-positive, with 95% linking to care. Of the 940 guardians who tested with the child, 186 (19.8%) were HIV-positive. CONCLUSIONS: The HIV prevalence among children tested was high, highlighting the need for PITC. For PITC to be successfully implemented, clear legislation about consent and guardianship needs to be developed, and structural issues addressed. HCWs require training on counselling children and guardians, particularly male guardians, who are less likely to engage with health care services. Increased awareness of the risk of HIV infection in asymptomatic older children is needed.

Using a Programme Science approach to substantially reduce the risk of HIV transmission and acquisition in sex transactions among female sex workers in Zimbabwe.

INTRODUCTION: We used a Programme Science platform, to generate evidence to support the implementation of programmes for sex workers in Africa. Female sex workers are estimated to make up 1.6% (1.3%-1.8%) of the population of women aged 15-49 years in Zimbabwe. We highlight how programme science can be used to help distinguish between when, where and with whom programmes need to be implemented and discuss two case studies that exemplify implementing better (Case study 1 (1 June 2019-30 June 2021) Optimizing implementation of a risk differentiated microplanning intervention) and implementing differently (Case study 2 (1 October 2016-30 September 2022) Reorientating implementation of DREAMS for young women selling sex). METHODS: Zimbabwe's nationally scaled programme for sex workers was established in 2009 in partnership with sex workers to provide comprehensive services for sex workers and generate evidence for programme design, implementation and scale up. Since inception, comprehensive data have been collected from all sex workers seeking services. As the scope of service provision has expanded so has the scope of data collection and analysis. At enrolment, sex workers are assigned an alphanumeric unique identifier which links consultations within and across programme sites. We conduct descriptive analyses of the Key Population (KP) programme data to guide programme implementation and redesign, embedding programmatic qualitative enquiry as required. RESULTS: Two case studies describing different approaches to programme optimization are presented. In the first, an optimization exercise was used to strengthen programme implementation ensuring that the KP programme got back on track after SARS-COV-2. In the second, an in-depth review of research and programme data led to a re-orientation of the DREAMS programme to ensure that young women at the highest risk of HIV acquisition were enrolled and had access to DREAMS social support interventions in turn strengthening their uptake of HIV prevention. CONCLUSIONS: Optimizing and sustaining HIV care and treatment programmes requires effective delivery with sufficient scale and intensity for population impact. Our programme science approach guided the scale up of the KP programme in Zimbabwe, providing evidence to support strategy, implementation and ongoing management, and importantly helping us distinguish between when we needed to just implement, implement better or implement differently.

The effect on HIV transmission and cost-effectiveness of programmes for female sex workers in East, Central, and Southern Africa: a modelling study.

BACKGROUND: HIV prevalence and incidence has declined in East, Central, and Southern Africa (ECSA), but remains high among female sex workers (FSWs). Sex worker programmes have the potential to considerably increase access to HIV testing, prevention, and treatment. We aimed to quantify these improvements by modelling the potential effect of sex worker programmes at two different intensities on HIV incidence and key health outcomes, and assessed the programmes' potential cost-effectiveness in order to help inform HIV policy decisions. METHODS: Using a model previously used to review policy decisions in ECSA, we assumed a low-intensity sex worker programme had run from 2010 until 2023; this resulted in care disadvantages among FSWs being reduced, and also increased testing, condom use, and willingness to take pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). After 2023, three policy options were considered: discontinuation, continuation, and a scale-up of the programme to high-intensity, which would have a broader reach, and higher influences on condom use, antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, testing, and PrEP use. Outputs of the key outcomes (the percentage of FSWs who were diagnosed with HIV, on ART, and virally suppressed; the percentage of FSWs with zero condomless partners, and HIV incidence) were compared in 2030. The maximum cost for a sex worker programme to be cost-effective was calculated over a 50-year time period and in the context of 10 million adults. The cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted from a health-care perspective; costs and disability-adjusted life-years were both discounted to present US$ values at 3% per annum. FINDINGS: Compared with continuing a low-intensity sex worker programme until 2030, discontinuation of the programme was calculated to result in a lower percentage of FSWs diagnosed (median 88·75% vs 91·37%; median difference compared to continuation of a low-intensity programme [90% range] 2·03 [-4·49 to 10·98]), a lower percentage of those diagnosed currently taking ART (86·35% vs 88·89%; 2·38 [-3·69 to 13·42]), and a lower percentage of FSWs on ART with viral suppression (87·49% vs 88·96%; 1·17 [-6·81 to 11·53]). Discontinuation of a low-intensity programme also resulted in an increase in HIV incidence among FSWs from 5·06 per 100 person-years (100 p-y; 90% range 0·52 to 22·21) to 4·05 per 100 p-y (0·21 to 21·15). Conversely, comparing a high-intensity sex worker programme until 2030 with discontinuation of the programme resulted in a higher percentage of FSWs diagnosed (median 95·81% vs 88·75; median difference compared to discontinuation [90% range] 6·36 [0·60 to 18·63]), on ART (93·93 vs 86.35%; median difference 7·13 [-0·65 to 26·48]), and with viral suppression (93·21% vs 87·49; median difference 7·13 [-0·65 to 26·48]). A high-intensity programme also resulted in HIV incidence in FSWs declining to 2·23 per 100 p-y (0·00 to 14·44), from 5·06 per 100 p-y (0·52 to 22·21) if the programme was discontinued. In the context of 10 million adults over a 50-year time period and a cost-effectiveness threshold of US$500 per disability-adjusted life-year averted, $34 million per year can be spent for a high-intensity programme to be cost-effective. INTERPRETATION: A sex worker programme, even with low-level interventions, has a positive effect on key outputs for FSWs. A high-intensity programme has a considerably higher effect; HIV incidence among FSW and in the general population can be substantially reduced, and should be considered for implementation by policy makers. FUNDING: Wellcome Trust.

A risk-differentiated, community-led intervention to strengthen uptake and engagement with HIV prevention and care cascades among female sex workers in Zimbabwe (AMETHIST): a cluster randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: Female sex workers remain disproportionately affected by HIV. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of risk-differentiated, peer-led support for female sex workers in Zimbabwe on the risk of HIV acquisition and HIV transmission from sex among female sex workers. METHODS: In this cluster randomised, open-label, controlled study, 22 clinics dedicated to female sex workers co-located in government health facilities throughout Zimbabwe were allocated (1:1, through restricted randomisation) to usual care or AMETHIST intervention. Usual care comprised HIV testing, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), referral to government antiretroviral therapy (ART) services, contraception, condoms, syndromic management of sexually transmitted infections, health education, legal advice, and peer support. AMETHIST added peer-led microplanning tailored to individuals' risk and participatory self-help groups. All cisgender women (aged >18 years) who had sold sex within the past 30 days and lived or worked within trial cluster areas were eligible. Intervention status was not masked to programme implementers but was masked to survey teams and laboratory staff. After 28 months, a respondent-driven sampling (RDS) survey was done in the female sex worker population around each clinic, which measured the primary outcome, the combined proportion of female sex workers in the surveyed population at risk of transmitting HIV (ie, were HIV positive, not virally suppressed, and not consistently using condoms) or at risk of acquiring HIV (ie, were HIV negative and not consistently using condoms or PrEP). We report prespecified analyses of the disaggregated proportions of female sex workers in the surveyed population at risk of either transmission or acquisition of HIV. Analyses were prespecified, RDS-weighted, and age-adjusted. This trial is registered with the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry, PACTR202007818077777. FINDINGS: The AMETHIST intervention was started on May 15, 2019, and data were collected from June 1, 2019, until Dec 13, 2021. The RDS survey was done from Oct 18 to Dec 13, 2021, with 2137 women included in the usual care group (11 clusters) and 2131 in the AMETHIST intervention group (11 clusters) after excluding survey seeds (n=132) and women with missing key data (n=44). 1973 (46·2%) of the 4268 female sex workers surveyed were living with HIV; of these, 863 (93·5%; RDS-adjusted) of 931 women in the intervention group and 927 (88·8%) of 1042 in the usual care group were virologically suppressed. 287 (22·4%) of 1200 HIV-negative women in the intervention group and 194 (15·7%) of 1096 in the usual care group reported currently taking PrEP, of whom only two (0·4%) of 569 had protective tenofovir diphosphate concentrations in dried blood spots (>700 fmol/dried blood punch). There was no effect of the intervention on the primary endpoint of risk of both HIV transmission and acquisition (intervention group n=1156/2131, RDS-adjusted proportion 55·3%; usual care group n=1104/2137, RDS-adjusted proportion 52·7%; age-adjusted risk difference -0·9%, 95% CI -5·7% to 3·9%, p=0·70). For the secondary outcomes, the proportion of women living with HIV at risk of transmission was low and significantly reduced in the intervention group (n=63/931, RDS-adjusted proportion 5·8%) compared with the usual care group (103/1041, 10·4%), with an age-adjusted risk difference of -5·5% (95% CI -8·2% to -2·9%, p=0·0003). Risk of acquisition among HIV-negative women was similar in the intervention (n=1093/1200, RDS-adjusted proportion 92·1%) and the usual care group (1001/1096, 92·2%), with an age-adjusted risk difference of -0·6% (95% CI -4·6 to 3·4, p=0·74). INTERPRETATION: There was no overall benefit of the intervention on combined risk of transmission or acquisition. Viral load suppression in women living with HIV was high and appeared to be further improved by AMETHIST, suggesting potential for impressive uptake and adherence to ART in vulnerable and mobile populations. Sustaining treatment and reinvigorating prevention remain crucial. FUNDING: The Wellcome Trust and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. TRANSLATIONS: For the Shona and Ndebele translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

"I have grown up controlling myself a lot." Fear and misconceptions about sex among adolescents vertically-infected with HIV in Tanzania.

With increased access to HIV treatment throughout Africa, a generation of HIV positive children is now transitioning to adulthood while living with a chronic condition requiring lifelong medication, which can amplify the anxieties of adolescence. This qualitative study explored how adolescents in Tanzania with HIV experience their nascent sexuality, as part of an evaluation of a home-based care programme. We interviewed 14 adolescents aged 15-19 who had acquired HIV perinatally, 10 of their parents or other primary caregivers, and 12 volunteer home-based care providers who provided support, practical advice, and referrals to clinical services. Adolescents expressed unease about their sexuality, fearing that sex and relationships were inappropriate and hazardous, given their HIV status. They worried about having to disclose their status to partners, the risks of infecting others and for their own health. Thus, many anticipated postponing or avoiding sex indefinitely. Caregivers and home-based care providers reinforced negative views of sexual activity, partly due to prevailing misconceptions about the harmful effects of sex with HIV. The adolescents had restricted access to accurate information, appropriate guidance, or comprehensive reproductive health services and were likely to experience significant unmet need as they initiated sexual relationships. Care programmes could help to reduce this gap by facilitating open communication about sexuality between adolescents and their caregivers, providers, and HIV-positive peers.