Molecularly Engineered Supramolecular Thermoresponsive Hydrogels with Tunable Mechanical and Dynamic Properties.

Synthetic supramolecular polymers and hydrogels in water are emerging as promising biomaterials due to their modularity and intrinsic dynamics. Here, we introduce temperature sensitivity into the nonfunctionalized benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA-EG4) supramolecular system by incorporating a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-functionalized (BTA-PNIPAM) moiety, enabling 3D cell encapsulation applications. The viscous and structural properties in the solution state as well as the mechanical and dynamic features in the gel state of BTA-PNIPAM/BTA-EG4 mixtures were investigated and modulated. In the dilute state (c ∼µM), BTA-PNIPAM acted as a chain capper below the cloud point temperature (Tcp = 24 °C) but served as a cross-linker above Tcp. At higher concentrations (c ∼mM), weak or stiff hydrogels were obtained, depending on the BTA-PNIPAM/BTA-EG4 ratio. The mixture with the highest BTA-PNIPAM ratio was ∼100 times stiffer and ∼10 times less dynamic than BTA-EG4 hydrogel. Facile cell encapsulation in 3D was realized by leveraging the temperature-sensitive sol-gel transition, opening opportunities for utilizing this hydrogel as an extracellular matrix mimic.

The interplay between nucleation and patterning during shear-induced crystallization from solution in a parallel plate geometry.

Cooling crystallization of small organic molecules from solution is an important operation for the separation and purification of drug products. In this research, shear-induced nucleation from a supersaturated solution is studied in a parallel plate geometry. Under conditions of shear and small gap sizes, narrow mesoscale circular bands of small crystals appeared spontaneously and reproducibly on the plate's surface. We have investigated the connection between nucleation and the emergence of these circular patterns. Our results show that nucleation occurs preferably in zones with high local shear rate (located at the outer edges of the plates), compared to zones with low local shear rate (at the center of the plates). The time before nucleation occurs decreases significantly for increasing mean shear rate and time. The circular crystalline patterns appear at the plate's surface, where heterogeneous nucleation first occurs. Multiple hypotheses are explored to understand the pattern formation in crystallization. Since no satisfactory explanation is found, a new mechanism is proposed. This hypothesis involves crystals initially forming on the surface of the plates and undergoing stick-slip motion, which influences the local nucleation kinetics. This results in an interplay between (secondary) nucleation and stick-slip motion at the start of the crystallization process. By modifying the surface of the plates, their ability to act as a heterogeneous nucleation site can be altered, allowing control over the formation of patterns.

Engineered modular microphysiological models of the human airway clearance phenomena.

Mucociliary clearance is a crucial mechanism that supports the elimination of inhaled particles, bacteria, pollution, and hazardous agents from the human airways, and it also limits the diffusion of aerosolized drugs into the airway epithelium. In spite of its relevance, few in vitro models sufficiently address the cumulative effect of the steric and interactive barrier function of mucus on the one hand, and the dynamic mucus transport imposed by ciliary mucus propulsion on the other hand. Here, ad hoc mucus models of physiological and pathological mucus are combined with magnetic artificial cilia to model mucociliary transport in both physiological and pathological states. The modular concept adopted in this study enables the development of mucociliary clearance models with high versatility since these can be easily modified to reproduce phenomena characteristic of healthy and diseased human airways while allowing to determine the effect of each parameter and/or structure separately on the overall mucociliary transport. These modular airway models can be available off-the-shelf because they are exclusively made of readily available materials, thus ensuring reproducibility across different laboratories.

Introducing Hyaluronic Acid into Supramolecular Polymers and Hydrogels.

The use of supramolecular polymers to construct functional biomaterials is gaining more attention due to the tunable dynamic behavior and fibrous structures of supramolecular polymers, which resemble those found in natural systems, such as the extracellular matrix. Nevertheless, to obtain a biomaterial capable of mimicking native systems, complex biomolecules should be incorporated, as they allow one to achieve essential biological processes. In this study, supramolecular polymers based on water-soluble benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamides (BTAs) were assembled in the presence of hyaluronic acid (HA) both in solution and hydrogel states. The coassembly of BTAs bearing tetra(ethylene glycol) at the periphery (BTA-OEG4) and HA at different ratios showed strong interactions between the two components that led to the formation of short fibers and heterogeneous hydrogels. BTAs were further covalently linked to HA (HA-BTA), resulting in a polymer that was unable to assemble into fibers or form hydrogels due to the high hydrophilicity of HA. However, coassembly of HA-BTA with BTA-OEG4 resulted in the formation of long fibers, similar to those formed by BTA-OEG4 alone, and hydrogels were produced with tunable stiffness ranging from 250 to 700 Pa, which is 10-fold higher than that of hydrogels assembled with only BTA-OEG4. Further coassembly of BTA-OEG4 fibers with other polysaccharides showed that except for dextran, all polysaccharides studied interacted with BTA-OEG4 fibers. The possibility of incorporating polysaccharides into BTA-based materials paves the way for the creation of dynamic complex biomaterials.

Laser sintering of polymer particle pairs studied by in situ visualization.

Merging of particle pairs during selective laser sintering (SLS) of polymers is vital in defining the final part properties. Depending on the sintering conditions, polymers can undergo full or partial sintering whereby incomplete sintering results in poor mechanical properties. At present, the underlying mechanisms and related conditions leading to various consolidation phenomena of polymer particles are not well understood. In the present work, a novel in-house developed experimental setup is used to perform laser sintering experiments on polystyrene (PS) particle doublets while performing in situ visualization of the sintering dynamics. From the recorded images, the evolution of the growth of the neck radius formed between both particles is analyzed as a function of time. Sintering conditions such as heating chamber temperature, laser pulse energy and duration, laser spot size and particle size are precisely controlled and systematically varied. A non-isothermal viscous sintering model is developed that allows qualitative prediction of the observed effects of the various parameters. It is shown that the sintering kinetics is determined by a complex interplay between the transient rheology caused by the finite relaxation times of the polymer and the time-dependent temperature profile which also affects the polymer viscosity. The combination of a full material characterization with sintering experiments under well-defined conditions has resulted in a general understanding of the effects of material and process parameters on laser sintering. Thereby a strong foundation is laid for the route towards rational design of laser sintering.

Effect of the Helix-Coil Transition in Bovine Skin Gelatin on Its Associative Phase Separation with Lysozyme.

It is known that the formation of electrostatic polyelectrolyte complexes can induce conformational changes in the interacting macromolecules. However, the opposite effect, namely, that of the helix-coil transition of one of the interacting polyelectrolytes on its associative phase separation with another polyelectrolyte and the possible phase transitions in such systems, has not been determined. Atomic force and confocal laser scanning microscopy, phase analysis, dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering, turbidimetry, absorption, and fluorescence measurements as well as differential scanning calorimetry and rheology were used to study the effect of the helix-coil transition in bovine skin gelatin (Gel) on its associative phase separation with hen egg white lysozyme (Lys) at different temperatures (18-40 °C) and various Lys/Gel weight ratios (0.01-100) at low ionic strength (0.01) and pH 7.0. The effects of the main variables on the phase state, the phase diagram, and the main complexation and binding parameters as well as the temperature and enthalpy of the helix-coil transition of Gel within the complexes were investigated. Associative phase separation is observed only for the system with Gel in the helix state. Effective charge and structure and the solution and rheological behavior of the formed complexes proved to be dependent on the [An-]/[Cat+] charge ratio. The localization of Lys within the complex particles has irregular character without the formation of a single center of binding. The binding of Lys with Gel does not lead to the disruption of its tertiary structure or to an appreciable change in the thermodynamic parameters of the thermal transitions of Lys. Gel in the coil state interacts only weakly with Lys, forming water-soluble complex associates. It is suggested that the Voorn-Overbeek model could potentially describe the stronger binding and phase separation in the case of Gel in the helix state.

Effect of Compression on the Molecular Arrangement of Itraconazole-Soluplus Solid Dispersions: Induction of Liquid Crystals or Exacerbation of Phase Separation?

Predensification and compression are unit operations imperative to the manufacture of tablets and capsules. Such stress-inducing steps can cause destabilization of solid dispersions which can alter their molecular arrangement and ultimately affect dissolution rate and bioavailability. In this study, itraconazole-Soluplus solid dispersions with 50% (w/w) drug loading prepared by hot-melt extrusion (HME) were investigated. Compression was performed at both pharmaceutically relevant and extreme compression pressures and dwell times. The starting materials, powder, and compressed solid dispersions were analyzed using modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SWAXS), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and broadband dielectric spectroscopy (BDS). MDSC analysis revealed that compression promotes phase separation of solid dispersions as indicated by an increase in glass transition width, occurrence of a peak in the nonreversing heat flow signal, and an increase in the net heat of fusion indicating crystallinity in the systems. SWAXS analysis ruled out the presence of mesophases. BDS measurements elucidated an increase in the Soluplus-rich regions of the solid dispersion upon compression. FTIR indicated changes in the spatiotemporal architecture of the solid dispersions mediated via disruption in hydrogen bonding and ultimately altered dynamics. These changes can have significant consequences on the final stability and performance of the solid dispersions.

Dynamics of particle-covered droplets in shear flow: unusual breakup and deformation hysteresis.

The dynamics of droplets exhibiting an elastic interface generated by a percolated network of particle aggregates at the interface is microscopically investigated in a counter rotating shear flow device. The droplet deformation is significantly suppressed by interfacially localized nanoparticles, even at high Ca numbers, resulting in suspension-like behavior at high particle coverage. When the Ca number surpasses a critical value, the particle network locally breaks up, resulting in localized deformability of the interface and breakup dynamics characterized by extremely irregular shapes. Finally, the destruction of the interfacial network results in hysteresis effects in the droplet deformation.

The use of Rheology Combined with Differential Scanning Calorimetry to Elucidate the Granulation Mechanism of an Immiscible Formulation During Continuous Twin-Screw Melt Granulation.

PURPOSE: Twin screw hot melt granulation (TS HMG) is a valuable, but still unexplored alternative to continuous granulation of moisture sensitive drugs. However, knowledge of the material behavior during TS HMG is crucial to optimize the formulation, process and resulting granule properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate the agglomeration mechanism during TS HMG using a rheometer in combination with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). METHODS: An immiscible drug-binder formulation (caffeine-Soluplus(®)) was granulated via TS HMG in combination with thermal and rheological analysis (conventional and Rheoscope), granule characterization and Near Infrared chemical imaging (NIR-CI). RESULTS: A thin binder layer with restricted mobility was formed on the surface of the drug particles during granulation and is covered by a second layer with improved mobility when the Soluplus(®) concentration exceeded 15% (w/w). The formation of this second layer was facilitated at elevated granulation temperatures and resulted in smaller and more spherical granules. CONCLUSION: The combination of thermal and rheological analysis and NIR-CI images was advantageous to develop in-depth understanding of the agglomeration mechanism during continuous TS HMG and provided insight in the granule properties as function of process temperature and binder concentration.

A Review on the Relationships between Processing, Food Structure, and Rheological Properties of Plant-Tissue-Based Food Suspensions.

Nowadays, there is much interest in controlling the functional properties of processed fruit- and vegetable-derived products, which has stimulated renewed research interest in process-structure-function relations. In this review, we focus on rheology as a functional property because of its importance during the entire production chain up to the moment of consumption and digestion. This review covers the literature of the past decade with respect to process-structure-rheology relations in plant-tissue-based food suspensions. It became clear that the structure of plant-tissue-based food suspensions, consisting of plant-tissue-based particles in an aqueous serum phase, is affected by many unit operations (for example, heat treatment) and that also the sequence of unit operations can have an effect on the final structural properties. Furthermore, particle concentration, particle size, and particle morphology were found to be key structural elements determining the rheological properties of these suspensions comprising low amounts of starch and serum pectin. Since the structure of plant-tissue-based products was shown to be changed during processing, rheological parameters of these products were simultaneously altered. Therefore, this review also comprises a discussion of the effect on rheological properties of the most relevant processing steps in the production of plant-tissue-based products. Linking changes in rheology due to processing with process-induced alterations in structural characteristics turned out to be quite intricate. The current knowledge on process-structure-function relations can form the basis for future improved and novel food process and product design.

Toughening Immiscible Polymer Blends: The Role of Interface-Crystallization-Induced Compatibilization Explored Through Nanoscale Visualization.

This study explores the novel approach of interface-crystallization-induced compatibilization (ICIC) via stereocomplexation as a promising method to improve the interfacial strength in thermodynamically immiscible polymers. Herein, two distinct reactive interfacial compatibilizers, poly(styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate)-graft-poly(l-lactic acid) (SAL) and poly(styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate)-graft-poly(d-lactic acid) (SAD) are synthesized via reactive melt blending in an integrated grafting and blending process. This approach is demonstrated to enhance the interfacial strength of immiscible polyvinylidene fluoride/poly l-lactic acid (PVDF/PLLA) 50/50 blends via ICIC. IR nanoimaging indicates a cocontinuous morphology in the blends. The blend compatibilized with SAD exhibits a higher storage modulus, as unveiled by small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) in the melt state at a temperature below the melting temperature of the stereocomplex (SC) crystals and by DMTA measurements in the solid state. This increase is attributed to the formation of a 200-300 nm thick rigid interfacial SC crystalline layer that is directly visible using AFM imaging and chemically characterized via IR nanospectroscopy. This ICIC also results in a significant toughening of the blend, with the elongation at break increasing more than 20-fold. Moreover, the fracture toughness factor obtained from single edge-notch bending (SENB) tests is doubled with ICIC as compared to the uncompatibilized blend, indicating the strong crack-resistance capability as a result of ICIC. This improvement is also evident in SEM images, where thinner and longer fibrillation is observed on the fractured surface in the presence of ICIC.

Peptide Sequence Variations Govern Hydrogel Stiffness: Insights from a Multi-Scale Structural Analysis of H-FQFQFK-NH2 Peptide Derivatives.

Throughout the past decades, amphipathic peptide-based hydrogels have proven to be promising materials for biomedical applications. Amphipathic peptides are known to adopt ß-sheet configurations that self-assemble into fibers that then interact to form a hydrogel network. A fundamental understanding of how the peptide sequence alters the structural properties of the hydrogels would allow for a more rational design of novel peptides for a variety of biomedical applications in the future. Therefore, the current work investigates how changing the type of amino acid, the amphipathic pattern, and the peptide length affects the secondary structure, fiber characteristics, and stiffness of peptide-based hydrogels. Hereto, seven amphipathic peptides of different sequence and length, four of which have not been previously reported, based on and including the hexapeptide H-Phe-Gln-Phe-Gln-Phe-Lys-NH2, are synthesized and thoroughly characterized by circular dichroism (CD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS), Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and Thioflavin T (ThT) fibrillization assays. The results show that a high amount of regularly spaced ß-sheets, a high amount of fibers, and fiber bundling contribute to the stiffness of the hydrogel. Furthermore, a study of the time-dependent fibril formation process reveals complex transient dynamics. The peptide strands structure through an intermediate helical state prior to ß-sheet formation, which is found to be concentration- and time-dependent.

Powdered Cross-Linked Gelatin Methacryloyl as an Injectable Hydrogel for Adipose Tissue Engineering.

The tissue engineering field is currently advancing towards minimally invasive procedures to reconstruct soft tissue defects. In this regard, injectable hydrogels are viewed as excellent scaffold candidates to support and promote the growth of encapsulated cells. Cross-linked gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) gels have received substantial attention due to their extracellular matrix-mimicking properties. In particular, GelMA microgels were recently identified as interesting scaffold materials since the pores in between the microgel particles allow good cell movement and nutrient diffusion. The current work reports on a novel microgel preparation procedure in which a bulk GelMA hydrogel is ground into powder particles. These particles can be easily transformed into a microgel by swelling them in a suitable solvent. The rheological properties of the microgel are independent of the particle size and remain stable at body temperature, with only a minor reversible reduction in elastic modulus correlated to the unfolding of physical cross-links at elevated temperatures. Salts reduce the elastic modulus of the microgel network due to a deswelling of the particles, in addition to triple helix denaturation. The microgels are suited for clinical use, as proven by their excellent cytocompatibility. The latter is confirmed by the superior proliferation of encapsulated adipose tissue-derived stem cells in the microgel compared to the bulk hydrogel. Moreover, microgels made from the smallest particles are easily injected through a 20G needle, allowing a minimally invasive delivery. Hence, the current work reveals that powdered cross-linked GelMA is an excellent candidate to serve as an injectable hydrogel for adipose tissue engineering.

A Spontaneous In Situ Thiol-Ene Crosslinking Hydrogel with Thermo-Responsive Mechanical Properties.

The thermo-responsive behavior of Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) makes it an ideal candidate to easily embed cells and allows the polymer mixture to be injected. However, P(NiPAAm) hydrogels possess minor mechanical properties. To increase the mechanical properties, a covalent bond is introduced into the P(NIPAAm) network through a biocompatible thiol-ene click-reaction by mixing two polymer solutions. Co-polymers with variable thiol or acrylate groups to thermo-responsive co-monomer ratios, ranging from 1% to 10%, were synthesized. Precise control of the crosslink density allowed customization of the hydrogel's mechanical properties to match different tissue stiffness levels. Increasing the temperature of the hydrogel above its transition temperature of 31 °C induced the formation of additional physical interactions. These additional interactions both further increased the stiffness of the material and impacted its relaxation behavior. The developed optimized hydrogels reach stiffnesses more than ten times higher compared to the state of the art using similar polymers. Furthermore, when adding cells to the precursor polymer solutions, homogeneous thermo-responsive hydrogels with good cell viability were created upon mixing. In future work, the influence of the mechanical micro-environment on the cell's behavior can be studied in vitro in a continuous manner by changing the incubation temperature.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Chitosan/HPMC/Insulin Hydrogel for Wound Healing Applications.

Treatment of chronic wounds is challenging, and the development of different formulations based on insulin has shown efficacy due to their ability to regulate oxidative stress and inflammatory reactions. The formulation of insulin with polysaccharides in biohybrid hydrogel systems has the advantage of synergistically combining the bioactivity of the protein with the biocompatibility and hydrogel properties of polysaccharides. In this study, a hydrogel formulation containing insulin, chitosan, and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (Chi/HPMC/Ins) was prepared and characterized by FTIR, thermogravimetric, and gel point analyses. The in vitro cell viability and cell migration potential of the Chi/HPMC/Ins hydrogel were evaluated in human keratinocyte cells (HaCat) by MTT and wound scratch assay. The hydrogel was applied to excisional full-thickness wounds in diabetic mice for twenty days for in vivo studies. Cell viability studies indicated no cytotoxicity of the Chi/HPMC/Ins hydrogel. Moreover, the Chi/HPMC/Ins hydrogel promoted faster gap closure in the scratch assay. In vivo, the wounds treated with the Chi/HPMC/Ins hydrogel resulted in faster wound closure, formation of a more organized granulation tissue, and hair follicle regeneration. These results suggest that Chi/HPMC/Ins hydrogels might promote wound healing in vitro and in vivo and could be a new potential dressing for wound healing.

Phase behavior of medium-length hydrophobically associating PEO-PPO multiblock copolymers in aqueous media.

HYPOTHESIS: The micellization of block copolymers of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and poly(propylene oxide) (PPO) is driven by the dehydration of PPO at elevated temperatures. At low concentrations, a viscous solution of isolated micelles is obtained, whereas at higher concentrations, crowding of micelles results in an elastic gel. Alternating PEO-PPO multiblock copolymers are expected to exhibit different phase behavior, with altered phase boundaries and thermodynamics, as compared to PEO-PPO-PEO triblock copolymers (Pluronics®) with equal hydrophobicity, thereby proving the pivotal role of copolymer architecture and molecular weight. EXPERIMENTS: Multiple characterization techniques were used to map the phase behavior as a function of temperature and concentration of PEO-PPO multiblock copolymers (ExpertGel®) in aqueous solution. These techniques include shear rheology, differential and adiabatic scanning calorimetry, isothermal titration calorimetry and light transmittance. The micellar size and topology were studied by dynamic light scattering. FINDINGS: Multiblocks have lower transition temperatures and higher thermodynamic driving forces for micellization as compared to triblocks due to the presence of more than one PPO block per chain. With increasing concentration, the multiblock copolymers in solution gradually evolve into a viscoelastic network formed by soluble bridges in between micellar nodes, whereas hairy triblock micelles jam into liquid crystalline phases resembling an elastic colloidal crystal.

A filament stretching rheometer for in situ X-ray experiments: Combining rheology and crystalline morphology characterization.

We present a rheometer that combines the possibility to perform in situ X-ray experiments with a precise and locally controlled uniaxial extensional flow. It thus allows us to study the crystallization kinetics and morphology evolution combined with the rheological response to the applied flow field. A constant uniaxial deformation rate is ensured, thanks to a fast control scheme that drives the simultaneous movement of the top and bottom plates during a pulling experiment. A laser micrometer measures the time evolution of the smallest diameter, where the highest stress is concentrated. The rheometer has a copper temperature-controlled oven with the ability to reach 250 °C and a N2 connection to create an inert atmosphere during the experiments. The innovation of our rheometer is the fixed location of the midfilament position, which is possible because of the simultaneous controlled movement of the two end plates. The copper oven has been constructed with four ad hoc windows: two glass windows for laser access and two Kapton windows for X-ray access. The key feature is the ability to perfectly align the midfilament of the sample to the laser micrometer and to the incoming X-ray beam in a synchrotron radiation facility, making it possible to investigate the structure and morphologies developed during extensional flow. The rheological response measured with our rheometer for low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is in agreement with the linear viscoelastic envelope and with the results obtained from the existing extensional rheometers. To demonstrate the capability of the instrument, we have performed in situ-resolved X-ray experiments on LDPE samples exhibiting extensional flow-induced crystallization.

Effect of confinement on droplet coalescence in shear flow.

The effect of confinement on the coalescence of Newtonian (polydimethylsiloxane) droplets in a Newtonian (polyisobutylene) matrix is investigated experimentally. A counter rotating parallel plate device, equipped with a microscopy setup, is used to visualize two interacting droplets during shear flow. The ratio of droplet-to-matrix viscosity is kept constant at 1.1. Droplet collisions are studied for a range of droplet sizes, both in bulk conditions and for gap spacings that are comparable to the droplet size. As a result, we present the first quantitative experimental data set for the coalescence of two equal-sized droplets in a pure shear flow with varying degrees of confinement. Compared to bulk conditions, for droplets smaller than roughly 0.2 times the gap spacing, a slight degree of confinement only decreases the orientation angle at which the droplets coalesce whereas the critical conditions for coalescence remain unaltered. For more confined conditions, the critical capillary number up to which coalescence can occur, increases. Therefore, confinement clearly promotes coalescence. In addition, the droplet trajectories, the time-dependent orientation angle of the droplet pair, and the droplet deformation prior to the coalescence event are systematically studied, and a comparison between the confined and the unconfined situation is provided. It is shown that the presence of two parallel walls can induce changes in the flow field around the droplet pair, which cause an increase of the interaction time between the droplets. Moreover, for sufficiently confined droplets, the additional force originating from the presence of the walls becomes comparable to the hydrodynamic force on the droplet pair, thus influencing the drainage of the matrix film between the droplet surfaces.

3D Sugar Printing of Networks Mimicking the Vasculature.

The vasculature plays a central role as the highway of the body, through which nutrients and oxygen as well as biochemical factors and signals are distributed by blood flow. Therefore, understanding the flow and distribution of particles inside the vasculature is valuable both in healthy and disease-associated networks. By creating models that mimic the microvasculature fundamental knowledge can be obtained about these parameters. However, microfabrication of such models remains a challenging goal. In this paper we demonstrate a promising 3D sugar printing method that is capable of recapitulating the vascular network geometry with a vessel diameter range of 1 mm down to 150 µm. For this work a dedicated 3D printing setup was built that is capable of accurately printing the sugar glass material with control over fibre diameter and shape. By casting of printed sugar glass networks in PDMS and dissolving the sugar glass, perfusable networks with circular cross-sectional channels are obtained. Using particle image velocimetry, analysis of the flow behaviour was conducted showing a Poisseuille flow profile inside the network and validating the quality of the printing process.

A novel experimental setup for in situ optical and X-ray imaging of laser sintering of polymer particles.

We present a unique laser sintering setup that allows real time studies of the structural evolution during laser sintering of polymer particles. The device incorporates the main features of classical selective laser sintering machines for 3D printing of polymers and at the same time allows in situ visualization of the sintering dynamics with optical microscopy as well as X-ray scattering. A main feature of the setup is the fact that it provides local access to one particle-particle bridge during sintering. In addition, due to the small scale of the device and the specific laser arrangement process, parameters such as the temperature, laser energy, laser pulse duration, and spot size can be precisely controlled. The sample chamber provides heating up to 360 °C, which allows for sintering of commodity as well as high performance polymers. The latter parameters are controlled by the use of a visible light laser combined with an acousto-optic modulator for pulsing, which allows small and precise spot sizes and pulse times and pulse energies as low as 500 µs and 17 µJ. The macrostructural evolution of the particle bridge during sintering is followed via optical imaging at high speed and resolution. Placing the setup in high flux synchrotron radiation with a fast detector simultaneously allows in situ time-resolved X-ray characterizations. To demonstrate the capabilities of the device, we studied the laser sintering of two spherical PA12 particles. The setup provides crucial real-time information concerning the sintering dynamics as well as crystallization kinetics, which was not accessible up to now.