Estradiol Replacement as a Potential Enhancer of Working Memory and Neuroplasticity in Hypogonadal Trans Women.

INTRODUCTION: The cognitive effects of cross-sex hormone therapy (CSHT) are not well understood. In cisgender individuals, sex hormone therapy can impact neurotransmitter levels and structural anatomy. Similarly, in gender-diverse persons, CSHT has been associated with neural adaptations, such as growth in brain structures resembling those observed in cisgender individuals of the same sex. Hormone-related changes in learning and memory, as seen in menopause, are associated with physiological hypogonadism or a decline in hormones, such as estradiol. The present study examined the effect of estradiol administration in humans on glutamate concentration in brain regions involved in semantic and working memory (i.e., the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [DLPFC], the posterior hippocampus, and the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex) and its relationship with memory. METHODS: Eighteen trans women (male biological sex assigned at birth) ceased CSHT for 30 days for a washout phase (t1) upon study enrollment to reach a hypogonadal state. Working and semantic memory, cognition, hormonal assays, and brain imaging were assessed. Participants resumed CSHT for 60 days for a replacement phase (t2), after which the same evaluations from t1 were repeated. RESULTS: Estradiol increased among trans women after 60 days of resumed CSHT with significant improvements in semantic memory compared to the hypogonadal phase. Working memory recall was significantly and positively correlated to glutamate in the DLPFC during the reinstatement phase, although the relationship was not moderated by levels of estradiol. DISCUSSION: These results may have clinical implications for the therapeutic effects of estradiol replacement, serving as a protective factor against cognitive decline and impairment for trans women post-gonadectomy.

Depression, Anxiety, and Lifestyle Among Essential Workers: A Web Survey From Brazil and Spain During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Essential workers have been shown to present a higher prevalence of positive screenings for anxiety and depression during the COVID-19 pandemic. Individuals from countries with socioeconomic inequalities may be at increased risk for mental health disorders. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of depression, anxiety, and their comorbidity among essential workers in Brazil and Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A web survey was conducted between April and May 2020 in both countries. The main outcome was a positive screening for depression only, anxiety only, or both. Lifestyle was measured using a lifestyle multidimensional scale adapted for the COVID-19 pandemic (Short Multidimensional Inventory Lifestyle Evaluation-Confinement). A multinomial logistic regression model was performed to evaluate the factors associated with depression, anxiety, and the presence of both conditions. RESULTS: From the 22,786 individuals included in the web survey, 3745 self-reported to be essential workers. Overall, 8.3% (n=311), 11.6% (n=434), and 27.4% (n=1027) presented positive screenings for depression, anxiety, and both, respectively. After adjusting for confounding factors, the multinomial model showed that an unhealthy lifestyle increased the likelihood of depression (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 4.00, 95% CI 2.72-5.87), anxiety (AOR 2.39, 95% CI 1.80-3.20), and both anxiety and depression (AOR 8.30, 95% CI 5.90-11.7). Living in Brazil was associated with increased odds of depression (AOR 2.89, 95% CI 2.07-4.06), anxiety (AOR 2.81, 95%CI 2.11-3.74), and both conditions (AOR 5.99, 95% CI 4.53-7.91). CONCLUSIONS: Interventions addressing lifestyle may be useful in dealing with symptoms of common mental disorders during the strain imposed among essential workers by the COVID-19 pandemic. Essential workers who live in middle-income countries with higher rates of inequality may face additional challenges. Ensuring equitable treatment and support may be an important challenge ahead, considering the possible syndemic effect of the social determinants of health.

Case report on the multiple pathways to posttraumatic stress disorder following suicide.

Trauma pathology is not only a sum of risk factors, but emerges as a result of complex causal interaction. The case presented here illustrates the pathway from suicide exposure to the development of fully-fledged treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), demonstrating how recognized risk factors can act in tandem to generate a difficult to treat syndrome. From a clinical perspective, bottom-up approaches that take into account real coping experiences of people bereaved by suicide are more effective to facilitate recovery and prevent adverse outcomes. Finally, even though treatment is often implemented, the diagnosis can be missed further complicating coping and treatment.

Age and sex trends for suicide in Brazil between 2000 and 2016.

PURPOSE: To evaluate changes in standardized suicide rates in Brazil between 2000 and 2016, stratified by sex and age. METHODS: Descriptive analyses of data from the Brazilian Mortality Information System were performed. RESULTS: 156,292 suicides were registered in the period, with a standardized rate of 4.82/100,000. The risk for males was 3.81 times higher than for females, without meaningful regional variations. This ratio was 8.2 at the 80+ group. An increase from 2000 to 2016 was demonstrated in nearly all subgroups over the 17, especially men aged 20-39 and women aged 40-59. CONCLUSIONS: Suicide rates continue to rise in Brazil, especially among young men and middle-aged women. Older men remain exposed to the highest absolute risk.

Biological Rhythm and Bipolar Disorder: Twelve-Month Follow-Up of a Randomized Clinical Trial.

The objective was to evaluate the effect of psychoeducation on biological rhythm and in the reduction of depressive, anxious, and manic symptoms at 12 months' follow-up. This was a randomized clinical trial with young adults aged 18 to 29 years, diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Biological rhythm was assessed with the Biological Rhythm Interview Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (BRIAN). Participants were randomized for combined intervention (psychoeducation plus medication) or treatment-as-usual (medication alone). The sample consisted of 61 patients (29 TAU; 32 combined intervention). Although it failed to separate by a marginal difference, the combined intervention seems to be more effective than TAU in relation to improvement of depressive symptoms at post-intervention (p = 0.074) and regulation of sleep/social domain at 6 months' follow-up (p = 0.057). Improvement of depressive symptoms as well as regulation of sleep and social activities are known to prevent episode onset and thus improve long-term outcomes.

Are big five personality traits associated to suicidal behaviour in adolescents? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Suicidal behaviour is one of the main causes of death worldwide, especially among teenagers, and its development is potentially associated with the development of personality. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to describe the association between the Big Five Personality Traits and suicidal behaviour in adolescents. METHODS: Seven databases were systematically searched between June 2022 and July 2022 with no language or year restrictions. We searched for a combination of the following search items (suicid* OR suicidal behaviour OR suicidal ideation OR suicide attempts OR self injury OR self-destructive behaviour OR self-harm OR suicidal risk) AND (personality OR personality traits OR temperament OR neuroticism OR extraversion OR agreeableness OR openness to experience OR conscientiousness) AND (adolescents OR youth OR teenagers OR young adults). Meta-analysis procedures were performed using the R software. A random-effect-model was performed for the models through the incorporation of τ2, based on the DerSimonion Lard method. RESULTS: Seven studies met all inclusion criteria and were included in this systematic review. Our meta-analysis showed that higher neuroticism are both associated and a risk factor for suicidal behaviour. Higher levels of openness to experience and agreeableness, and lower levels of extraversion and conscientiousness, were linked to suicidal behaviour, especially self-harm. LIMITATIONS: Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, we were only able to perform meta-analysis regarding neuroticism. CONCLUSION: The present study may help professionals to identify adolescents in higher risk for suicidal behaviour, enabling the development of early interventions to prevent suicidality in this population.

Exploring protective factors in a high-risk subsample: the pivotal role of paternal support in preventing depression in a cohort of young adults.

BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a global concern due to its widespread prevalence and morbidity. Identifying protective factors in high-risk individuals, including those with a familial predisposition, maltreatment history, and socio-economic vulnerabilities, is crucial. METHODS: We assessed a high-risk subsample within a young adult population cohort (n = 791; mean age = 31.94 [SD = 2.18]) across three waves. Using multiple regression models to analyse higher education, feeling supported, spirituality, psychotherapy access, higher socioeconomic status, involvement in activities, cohabitation, and family unity in Waves 1 and 2, and their association with MDD resilience at Wave 3. RESULTS: In the high-risk group, MDD incidence was 13.7% (n=24). Paternal support had a protective effect on MDD incidence (OR = 0.366; 95% CI [0.137 to 0.955], p = 0.040) and suicidal attempt risk (OR = 0.380; 95% CI [0.150 to 0.956], p = 0.038). Higher resilience scores were also protective (OR = 0.975; 95% CI [0.953 to 0.997], p = 0.030), correlating with reduced BDI (r = 0.0484; B = -0.2202; 95% CI [-0.3572 to -0.0738]; p = 0.003) and MADRS scores (r = 0.0485; B = -0.2204; 95% CI [-0.3574 to -0.0741]; p = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Our paper emphasizes reorienting the MDD approach, focusing on positive prevention strategies. It highlights fathers' crucial role in family-based interventions and promoting resilience in high-risk populations.

The role of metabolic syndrome as a mediator in the relationship between CCL11 levels and the presence of a mood episode with mixed features in young adults with bipolar disorder.

Mixed features presentation in bipolar disorder (BD) represents the most severe form of the disease. BD may lead to cognitive and functional deterioration, a process known as neuroprogression, which appears to be exacerbated by increased serum levels of CCL11, a neuroprogression-related cytokine. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is highly prevalent in BD, and it is known that the presence of MetS may increase inflammation, which may contribute to increased CCL11 levels, and consequently impact on the severity of the disorder. What is not known is whether the MetS mediates the association between CCL11 levels and the presence of mood episodes with mixed features in BD. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the mediating effect of MetS on the relationship between CCL11 levels and the presence of mood episodes with mixed features in BD, in a population-based study. This is a cross-sectional study that included 184 young adults, 92 with BD and 92 populational controls, matched by sex and age. BD diagnosis was assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview - PLUS. Mood episodes with mixed features was defined according to DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. MetS was defined according to the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP/ATP III). Substance use was assessed through the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). CCL11 serum levels were analyzed using the multiplex analysis method Luminex 200™ system. The mediation model was tested using the MedMod module of the JAMOVI 2.4.8 software. Mediation analysis indicated a trend towards significance of MetS mediating the association between CCL11 and the presence of a mood episode with mixed features in BD (p = 0.065). Individuals with BD presenting with a mood episode with mixed features and MetS may have accelerated neuroprogression due to the influence of MetS on CCL11 levels, therefore, assessing for MetS occurrence in this population and implementing early interventions to prevent its development may be effective ways of delaying cognitive impairments related to this cytokine.

Factors associated with suicide risk in young women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder: A population-based study.

PURPOSE: Women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) are more likely to report suicide ideation and behavior when compared to women without PMDD. However, there is a lack of studies investigating the risk factors for suicide risk in women with PMDD. Thus, the aim of this study is to assess the factors associated with suicide risk in young women with PMDD. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study including 128 young women with PMDD who were recruited from the community. PMDD and suicide risk were assessed by trained psychologists using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI-PLUS). Suicide risk evaluation includes six questions that assess suicidal intention, planning and previous attempts. Subjects who answer yes to any of the six questions are classified as having current suicide risk. RESULTS: The prevalence of current suicide risk in women with PMDD was 28.1%. The factors associated with suicide risk in this population were: presenting current panic disorder (OR: 18.71 [95% CI: 1.02 - 343.27], p=0.048), a non-white skin color (OR: 4.18 [CI 95%: 1.28 - 13.61], p=0.018), greater severity of depressive symptoms (OR: 1.22 [95% CI: 1.12 - 1.32], < 0.001), and history of childhood trauma (OR: 1.04 [95% CI: 1.01 - 1.08], 0.010). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that there are key sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with suicide risk in young women with PMDD, enabling clinicians to identify at-risk individuals who could benefit from further screening and interventions.

Cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder in comparison to mild cognitive impairment and dementia: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review to describe cognitive abilities in bipolar disorder (BD) in comparison to cognitive abilities in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. METHODS: A literature search was performed with no year or language restrictions. The search yielded 1,461 articles, with 1,261 remaining after removal of duplicates, five of which were suitable for the systematic review: two for the comparison between BD and MCI and three comparing BD and dementia. RESULTS: Analyses from our systematic review showed that euthymic individuals with BD present impairments in cognitive domains such as attention and executive functioning, motor skills, conceptual thinking, and visuo-spatial abilities that are equally severe as or more severe than the impairments observed in individuals with MCI. In contrast, studies comparing BD and dementia indicated that Alzheimer's disease (AD) dementia and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) both showed greater cognitive deficits than BD during euthymia, whereas BD during a mood episode demonstrated higher cognitive impairments than bvFTD. CONCLUSION: Findings from our systematic review suggest that cognitive impairments in euthymic BD fall into a range between the impairments seen in MCI and those seen in dementia. More studies are needed to analyze these comparisons, while also focusing on comparing different clinical stages of BD with MCI and dementia to analyze the progression of the clinical course and cognitive dysfunction in BD.

Lifestyle interventions for bipolar disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This review and meta-analysis aimed to describe the existing literature on interventions for bipolar disorder (BD) targeting the 6 pillars of Lifestyle Psychiatry: diet, physical activity (PA), substance use (SU), sleep, stress management, and social relationships (SR). Randomized Controlled Trials that examined the efficacy of lifestyle interventions targeting improvement in depressive/(hypo)manic symptom severity, lifestyle patterns, functioning, quality of life, and/or circadian rhythms were included. The systematic review included 18 studies, while the meta-analysis included studies targeting the same lifestyle domains and outcomes. Sleep (n = 10), PA (n = 9), and diet (n = 8) were the most targeted domains, while SU, SM and SR were least targeted (n = 4 each). Combined diet and PA interventions led to significant improvements in depressive symptoms (SMD: -0.46; 95%CI: -0.88, -0.04; p = 0.03), and functioning (SMD: -0.47; 95%CI: -0.89, -0.05; p = 0.03). Sleep interventions also led to significant improvements in depressive symptoms (SMD: -0.80; 95%CI: -1.21, -0.39; p < 0.01). Future research should focus on developing more multidimensional lifestyle interventions for a potentially greater impact on clinical and functional outcomes of BD.

Cross-cultural adaptation and psychometric properties of the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure for the Brazilian context.

INTRODUCTION: The Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM) was developed to measure individual differences in social comparison orientation and has been widely used in research and different contexts. The aim of this study was to adapt the online version of the INCOM and to evaluate its psychometric parameters when applied to a Brazilian population of university students. METHODS: The procedures were divided into two steps: step 1 - cross-cultural adaptation and content validity, and step 2 - assessment of psychometric characteristics. In step 1, the processes of translation, evaluation by expert committee, evaluation by the target population, and the back-translation, were performed. In step 2, 1065 university students participated and factor analysis, analysis of reliability and validity based on external measures were performed. RESULTS: The adaptation process showed satisfactory results, such as good indicators of content validity. Exploratory factor analysis indicated a two-dimensional structure and adequate factor loadings, except for item 11, which was excluded from the final version. Also, the final version of the scale presented adequate fit indices (χ2 = 148.45, df = 26; p < 0.001; RMSEA = 0.06; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.98). Evidence of reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.83) was found, in addition to positive correlations with negative affect (r =0.36) and negative correlations with positive affect and self-esteem (r = -0.15; r = -0.41, respectively). CONCLUSION: The Brazilian version of the INCOM presents satisfactory psychometric parameters and can thus be used to measure social comparison orientation.

Does the intensity of dissociation predict antidepressant effects 24 hours after infusion of racemic ketamine and esketamine in treatment-resistant depression? A secondary analysis from a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Ketamine and esketamine have both shown significant antidepressant effects in treatment-resistant depression (TRD), and conflicting evidence suggests that induced dissociation by these drugs can be a clinical predictor of esketamine/ketamine's efficacy. METHODS: This study is a secondary analysis from a bi-center, randomized, controlled trial. Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive an IV infusion of esketamine (.25 mg/kg) or racemic ketamine (.50 mg/kg) over 40 minutes. Dissociative symptoms were assessed using the Clinician-Administered Dissociative State Scale (CADSS) 40 minutes following the beginning of the infusion. The variation in depression scores was measured with the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), which was administered before the intervention as a baseline measure and 24 hrs, 72 hrs, and 7 days following infusion. RESULTS: Sixty-one patients were included in the analysis. Examining CADSS scores of 15 or below, for every 1-point increment in the CADSS score, there was a mean change of -0.5 (SD = 0.25; p-value 0.04) of predicted MADRS score from baseline to 24 hrs. The results for 72 hrs and 7 days following infusion were not significant. Limitations: This study was not designed to assess the relationship between ketamine or esketamine-induced dissociation and antidepressant effects as the main outcome, therefore confounding variables for this relationship were not controlled. CONCLUSION: We suggest a positive relationship between dissociation intensity, measured by CADSS, and antidepressant effect 24 hours after ketamine and esketamine infusion for a CADSS score of up to 15 points.

Psychological resilience and mood disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: This systematic review is aimed at describing the relationship between psychological resilience and mood disorders. METHODS: This is a systematic review and meta-analysis. The following databases were searched: PubMed, PsycINFO, and Embase on November 6, 2020. RESULTS: 23 articles were included, and the majority of the studies included (95.7%) showed a positive impact of psychological resilience in mood disorders. Our meta-analysis showed that individuals with bipolar disorder presented significantly lower levels of psychological resilience as compared to controls (Standardized Mean Difference (SDM): -0.99 [CI 95%: -1.13 - -0.85], p<0.001). In addition, individuals with depression had significantly lower levels of psychological resilience as compared to controls (SDM: -0.71 [CI 95%: -0.81 - -0.61], p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Our results showed that individuals with mood disorders are less resilient than individuals without mood disorders. Our findings reinforce the importance of investigating interventions that may help to increase psychological resilience considering its positive impact in the context of mood disorders.

Underage drinking in Brazil: findings from a community household survey.

OBJECTIVES: Previous studies have estimated the 30-day prevalence of alcohol use to be approximately 21% among youth in Brazil, despite the legal drinking age of 18 years. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of underage drinking and its associated factors among adolescents in Brazil. METHODS: The 3rd National Survey on Drug Use by the Brazilian Population (III Levantamento Nacional sobre o Uso de Drogas pela População Brasileira) is a nationwide, multi-stage, probability-sample household survey. Herein, youth between the ages of 12-17 years were included. Lifetime and 12-month alcohol use prevalence were estimated. Factors associated with 12-month alcohol use were evaluated through multivariate analysis considering survey weights and design. RESULTS: Overall, 628 youth were interviewed. Estimated lifetime and 12-month alcohol use were 34.3% (standard error [SE] = 1.9) and 22.2% (SE = 1.7), respectively. Factors associated with 12-month drinking were: other/no religion vs. Christianity; living in rural vs. urban areas; self-reported diagnosis of depression vs. no self-reported depression; lifetime tobacco use vs. no history of tobacco use; and any illicit drug use vs. no history of illicit drug use. CONCLUSION: Considering that alcohol use is a major risk factor for early death among Brazilian youth, our findings highlight the importance of preventative measures to reduce underage drinking.

Lifestyle predictors of depression and anxiety during COVID-19: a machine learning approach.

INTRODUCTION: Recent research has suggested an increase in the global prevalence of psychiatric symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to assess whether lifestyle behaviors can predict the presence of depression and anxiety in the Brazilian general population, using a model developed in Spain. METHODS: A web survey was conducted during April-May 2020, which included the Short Multidimensional Inventory Lifestyle Evaluation (SMILE) scale, assessing lifestyle behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic. Depression and anxiety were examined using the PHQ-2 and the GAD-7, respectively. Elastic net, random forest, and gradient tree boosting were used to develop predictive models. Each technique used a subset of the Spanish sample to train the models, which were then tested internally (vs. the remainder of the Spanish sample) and externally (vs. the full Brazilian sample), evaluating their effectiveness. RESULTS: The study sample included 22,562 individuals (19,069 from Brazil, and 3,493 from Spain). The models developed performed similarly and were equally effective in predicting depression and anxiety in both tests, with internal test AUC-ROC values of 0.85 (depression) and 0.86 (anxiety), and external test AUC-ROC values of 0.85 (depression) and 0.84 (anxiety). Meaning of life was the strongest predictor of depression, while sleep quality was the strongest predictor of anxiety during the COVID-19 epidemic. CONCLUSIONS: Specific lifestyle behaviors during the early COVID-19 epidemic successfully predicted the presence of depression and anxiety in a large Brazilian sample using machine learning models developed on a Spanish sample. Targeted interventions focused on promoting healthier lifestyles are encouraged.

Socioeconomic and substance use changes in emerging adults and their relationship with mood disorders in a population-based cohort.

In this report, we aim to assess the interaction of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder with the evolution of social roles, economic classification, and substance misuse in emerging adults. This is a longitudinal population-based study (n = 231 at baseline), in which participants were reassessed at a mean of 5 years after baseline. A structured clinical interview was used to diagnose the participants with bipolar disorder and major depression; a control group without mood disorders was included. Men with mood disorders were less likely to be married in the beginning of the study and less likely to work in the follow-up. Women with major depression were less likely to study and more likely to be in a lower economic class at the beginning of the study. In comparison, women with bipolar disorder were less likely to live with their parents and more likely to live with their children in the first wave of the study. Substance misuse was more likely in people with mood disorders, especially in men, and women with bipolar disorder had the highest likelihood in the follow-up. Albeit longitudinal analyses were limited by a possibly insufficient sample size and mediating mechanisms for change, such as stigma, were not explored, the study suggests sex-related specificities regarding the change in social roles and substance use in people with mood disorders. Emerging adults, especially those with mood disorders, are in a period of change and instability and at a greater risk for substance use and abuse.

Predictors of conversion from major depressive disorder to bipolar disorder.

The present study has two main aims: (1) To assess whether childhood trauma helps to differentiate Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) from Bipolar Disorder (BD) in a cross-sectional design; and (2) Describe the rate of conversion from MDD to BD, as well as the clinical and demographic predictors of conversion from MDD to BD in a prospective cohort design. We conducted a prospective cohort study in two phases, in the city of Pelotas, RS, Brazil. In the first phase, 565 subjects diagnosed with MDD, and 127 with BD according to the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview were included. In the second phase, only individuals with MDD were reevaluated for potential conversion to BD. The rate of conversion from MDD to BD in 3 years was 12.4%. Predictors of conversion from MDD to BD included lower educational level, use of illicit substances, younger age of the first depressive episode, and family history of BD. Childhood trauma was not a significant risk factor for conversion to BD in our prospective study. Our findings can contribute to the prevention and identification of conversion from MDD to BD, as well as to the establishment of more targeted therapeutic interventions, improving the prognosis of these individuals.

Neuroprogression in post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Neuroprogression has been proposed as the pathological rewiring of the brain that takes place in parallel with clinical and neurocognitive deterioration in the course of psychiatric disorders. This study aims to review the biological underpinnings and clinical outcomes related to neuroprogression in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHODS: We performed a systematic review by searching PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science for articles published between January 1, 1960, and January 6, 2020. Inclusion criteria were met when articles assessed brain changes, neurocognition, functioning, inflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotrophins in patients with PTSD. Narrative review articles, case reports, and preclinical studies were excluded. RESULTS: A total of 965 abstracts were identified and 15 articles were included in our systematic review. It seems that for a subset of patients whose symptoms worsen or are maintained at a high intensity there is a progressive change in the frontal lobe, especially the prefrontal cortex, and worsening of both neurocognition (verbal memory and facial recognition) and functioning (physical, psychological, social and environmental). CONCLUSION: Although current findings associate progressive reduction in frontal lobe size with neurocognitive impairment, further research is needed to characterize PTSD as a neuroprogressive disorder.

Sleep alterations in individuals recently diagnosed with bipolar disorder across different mood stages.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the differences in sleep impairments in major depressive disorder (MDD) and individuals recently diagnosed with bipolar disorder (BD) across different mood stages. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study corresponding to the second wave of a prospective clinical cohort of a sample of outpatients. The first wave included subjects diagnosed with MDD aged 18 to 60 years. Averaging 3 years after the first phase (second wave), conversion from MDD to BD diagnosis was assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. The total sample was divided into four groups: euthymic MDD, MDD in a current episode, euthymic BD, and BD in a current mood episode. The sleep alterations were assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. RESULTS: The sample included 468 subjects (261 euthymic MDD, 149 MDD currently depressed, 16 euthymic BD, and 42 BDs currently in a (hypo)manic or depressive episode). Euthymic BD differed from euthymic MDD only in the domains of sleep efficiency and sleep disturbances, showing lower sleep efficiency (PR 4.91 [95%CI 1.94 - 12.42]) and higher sleep disturbances (PR 3.38 [95%CI 1.32 - 8.67]) in subjects recently diagnosed with BD during euthymia. These differences remained significant after adjusting for the potential confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS: The findings point out the relevance of regular sleep assessments in individuals recently diagnosed with BD, since the differences in sleep quality observed could provide insights regarding prognosis, treatment, and the extent to which these individuals display significant subsyndromal symptomatology, even in the absence of a mood episode.