Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 functionally interacts with microtubules and kinase-dependently modulates cell migration.

Recent studies indicate that the Parkinson's disease-linked leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) modulates cytoskeletal functions by regulating actin and tubulin dynamics, thereby affecting neurite outgrowth. By interactome analysis we demonstrate that the binding of LRRK2 to tubulins is significantly enhanced by pharmacological LRRK2 inhibition in cells. Co-incubation of LRRK2 with microtubules increased the LRRK2 GTPase activity in a cell-free assay. Destabilization of microtubules causes a rapid decrease in cellular LRRK2(S935) phosphorylation indicating a decreased LRRK2 kinase activity. Moreover, both human LRRK2(G2019S) fibroblasts and mouse LRRK2(R1441G) fibroblasts exhibit alterations in cell migration in culture. Treatment of mouse fibroblasts with the selective LRRK2 inhibitor LRRK2-IN1 reduces cell motility. These findings suggest that LRRK2 and microtubules mutually interact both in non-neuronal cells and in neurons, which might contribute to our understanding of its pathogenic effects in Parkinson's disease.

Pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 cellular phosphorylation sites provides insight into LRRK2 biology.

Mutations in LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) have been linked to inherited forms of PD (Parkinson's disease). Substantial pre-clinical research and drug discovery efforts have focused on LRRK2 with the hope that small-molecule inhibitors of the enzyme may be valuable for the treatment or prevention of the onset of PD. The pathway to develop therapeutic or neuroprotective agents based on LRRK2 function (i.e. kinase activity) has been facilitated by the development of both biochemical and cell-based assays for LRRK2. LRRK2 is phosphorylated on Ser910, Ser935, Ser955 and Ser973 in the N-terminal domain of the enzyme, and these sites of phosphorylation are likely to be regulated by upstream enzymes in an LRRK2 kinase-activity-dependent manner. Knowledge of these phosphorylation sites and their regulation can be adapted to high-throughput-screening-amenable platforms. The present review describes the utilization of LRRK2 phosphorylation as indicators of enzyme inhibition, as well as how such assays can be used to deconvolute the pathways in which LRRK2 plays a role.

Design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationship studies of thiophene-3-carboxamide derivatives as dual inhibitors of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase.

We report comprehensive structure-activity relationship studies on a novel series of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) inhibitors. Intriguingly, the compounds have a dual inhibitory activity by functioning as both ATP and JIP mimetics, possibly by binding to both the ATP binding site and to the docking site of the kinase. Several of such novel compounds display potent JNK inhibitory profiles both in vitro and in cell.

Development of LanthaScreen cellular assays for key components within the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

The PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway is central to cell growth and survival, cell cycle regulation, and programmed cell death. Aberrant activation of this signaling cascade is linked to several disease states, and thus many components of the pathway are attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. However, the considerable degree of complexity, crosstalk, and feedback regulation that exists within the pathway (especially with respect to the regulation of mTOR and its complexes) underscores the need for a comprehensive set of cell-based assays to properly identify and characterize small-molecule modulators. Here, the development and application of time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET)-based assays to enable the phosphoprotein analysis of key pathway components in a cellular format are reported. The LanthaScreen cellular assay platform uses FRET between a terbium-labeled phosphorylation site-specific antibody and an expressed green fluorescent protein fusion of particular kinase substrate and provides an assay readout that is ratiometric, robust, and amenable to high-throughput screening applications. Assays specific for 5 different targets within the pathway are highlighted: Ser183 and Thr246 on the proline-rich AKT substrate 40 kDa (PRAS40), Ser457 on programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4), and Thr308 and Ser473 on AKT. Each assay was evaluated under various experimental conditions and individually optimized for performance. Known pathway agonists and a small panel of commercially available compounds were also used to complete the assay validation. Taken together, these data demonstrate the utility of a related set of cell-based assays to interrogate PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling and provide a template for the development of similar assays for other targets.

Cellular LanthaScreen and beta-lactamase reporter assays for high-throughput screening of JAK2 inhibitors.

The Janus kinase (JAK) 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 5 pathway is responsible for regulation of cellular responses to a number of cytokines and growth factors. In hematopoietic cells, growth factors such as granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor, interleukin-3, and erythropoietin induce the activation of JAK2, which leads to the phosphorylation, dimerization, and transactivation of STAT5 proteins. Dysregulation of JAK2 by activating mutations such as JAK2V617F results in constitutive phosphorylation of STAT5 and has been linked to numerous myeloproliferative disorders such as polycythemia vera. A cellular LanthaScreen (Invitrogen Corp., Carlsbad, CA) time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer assay for wild-type JAK2 activity was developed. This assay utilized the growth factor-dependent human erythroleukemia TF1 cell line engineered to express a green fluorescent protein-STAT5 fusion protein. Furthermore, a complementary beta-lactamase reporter gene assay was developed to analyze the transcriptional activity of STAT5 downstream of JAK2 in TF1 cells. The same technologies were applied to the development of cellular assays for the interrogation of the disease-relevant JAK2V617F activating mutant. A small molecule inhibitor and Stealth (Invitrogen Corp.) RNA interference oligonucleotides were used to confirm the involvement of JAK2. Our results suggest that these cellular assays and validation tools represent powerful integrated methods for the analysis of physiological and disease-relevant JAK/STAT pathways within the physiological cellular context.

Phenotypic Assays for Characterizing Compound Effects on Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiac Spheroids.

Development of more complex, biologically relevant, and predictive cell-based assays for compound screening is a major challenge in drug discovery. The focus of this study was to establish high-throughput compatible three-dimensional (3D) cardiotoxicity assays using human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Using both high-content imaging and fast kinetic fluorescence imaging, the impact of various compounds on the beating rates and patterns of cardiac spheroids was monitored by changes in intracellular Ca2+ levels with calcium-sensitive dyes. Advanced image analysis methods were implemented to provide multiparametric characterization of the Ca2+ oscillation patterns. In addition, we used confocal imaging and 3D analysis methods to characterize compound effects on the morphology of 3D spheroids. This phenotypic assay allows for the characterization of parameters such as beating frequency, amplitude, peak width, rise and decay times, as well as cell viability and morphological characteristics. A set of 22 compounds, including a number of known cardioactive and cardiotoxic drugs, was assayed at different time points, and the calculated EC50 values for compound effects were compared between 3D and two-dimensional (2D) model systems. A significant concordance in the phenotypes was observed for compound effects between the two models, but essential differences in the concentration responses and time dependencies of the compound-induced effects were observed. Together, these results indicate that 3D cardiac spheroids constitute a functionally distinct biological model system from traditional flat 2D cultures. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that phenotypic assays using 3D model systems are enabled for screening and suitable for cardiotoxicity assessment in vitro.

Phenotypic Characterization of Toxic Compound Effects on Liver Spheroids Derived from iPSC Using Confocal Imaging and Three-Dimensional Image Analysis.

Cell models are becoming more complex to better mimic the in vivo environment and provide greater predictivity for compound efficacy and toxicity. There is an increasing interest in exploring the use of three-dimensional (3D) spheroids for modeling developmental and tissue biology with the goal of accelerating translational research in these areas. Accordingly, the development of high-throughput quantitative assays using 3D cultures is an active area of investigation. In this study, we have developed and optimized methods for the formation of 3D liver spheroids derived from human iPS cells and used those for toxicity assessment. We used confocal imaging and 3D image analysis to characterize cellular information from a 3D matrix to enable a multi-parametric comparison of different spheroid phenotypes. The assay enables characterization of compound toxicities by spheroid size (volume) and shape, cell number and spatial distribution, nuclear characterization, number and distribution of cells expressing viability, apoptosis, mitochondrial potential, and viability marker intensities. In addition, changes in the content of live, dead, and apoptotic cells as a consequence of compound exposure were characterized. We tested 48 compounds and compared induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived hepatocytes and HepG2 cells in both two-dimensional (2D) and 3D cultures. We observed significant differences in the pharmacological effects of compounds across the two cell types and between the different culture conditions. Our results indicate that a phenotypic assay using 3D model systems formed with human iPSC-derived hepatocytes is suitable for high-throughput screening and can be used for hepatotoxicity assessment in vitro.

Identification of Drug-Drug Interactions In Vitro: A Case Study Evaluating the Effects of Sofosbuvir and Amiodarone on hiPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes.

Drug-drug interactions pose a difficult drug safety problem, given the increasing number of individuals taking multiple medications and the relative complexity of assessing the potential for interactions. For example, sofosbuvir-based drug treatments have significantly advanced care for hepatitis C virus-infected patients, yet recent reports suggest interactions with amiodarone may cause severe symptomatic bradycardia and thus limit an otherwise extremely effective treatment. Here, we evaluated the ability of human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs) to recapitulate the interaction between sofosbuvir and amiodarone in vitro, and more generally assessed the feasibility of hiPSC-CMs as a model system for drug-drug interactions. Sofosbuvir alone had negligible effects on cardiomyocyte electrophysiology, whereas the sofosbuvir-amiodarone combination produced dose-dependent effects beyond that of amiodarone alone. By comparison, GS-331007, the primary circulating metabolite of sofosbuvir, had no effect alone or in combination with amiodarone. Further mechanistic studies revealed that the sofosbuvir-amiodarone combination disrupted intracellular calcium (Ca2+) handling and cellular electrophysiology at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, and mechanical activity at supra-pharmacological (30x Cmax) concentrations. These effects were independent of the common mechanisms of direct ion channel block and P-glycoprotein activity. These results support hiPSC-CMs as a comprehensive, yet scalable model system for the identification and evaluation of cardioactive pharmacodynamic drug-drug interactions.

Inhibitory properties of nucleic acid-binding ligands on protein synthesis.

The use of small molecule inhibitors in the study of cellular processes is a powerful approach to understanding gene function. During the course of a high throughput screen for novel inhibitors of eukaryotic translation, we identified a number of nucleic acid binding ligands that showed activity in our assay. When tested on a panel of mRNA transcripts displaying different modes of translation initiation, these ligands showed a range of biological activities--with some inhibiting both cap-dependent and internal initiation and others preferentially blocking internal initiation. We used this information to identify a novel threading intercalator that inhibits Hepatitis C virus internal initiation.

Preferred RNA binding sites for a threading intercalator revealed by in vitro evolution.

In pursuit of small molecules capable of controlling the function of RNA targets, we have explored the RNA binding properties of peptide-acridine conjugates (PACs). In vitro evolution (SELEX) was used to isolate RNAs capable of binding the PAC Ser-Val-Acr-Arg, where Acr is an acridine amino acid. The PAC binds RNA aptamers selectively and with a high degree of discrimination over DNA. PAC binding sites contain the base-paired 5'-CpG-3' sequence, a known acridine intercalation site. However, RNA structure flanking this sequence causes binding affinities to vary over 30-fold. The preferred site (K(D) = 20 nM) contains a base-paired 5'-CpG-3' step flanked on the 5' side by a 4 nt internal loop and the 3' side by a bulged U. Several viral 5'- and 3'-UTR RNA sequences that likely form binding sites for this PAC are identified.

Screening for novel LRRK2 inhibitors using a high-throughput TR-FRET cellular assay for LRRK2 Ser935 phosphorylation.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) have been linked to Parkinson's disease. Recent studies show that inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity decreased the level of phosphorylation at its own Ser910 and Ser935, indicating that these sites are prime targets for cellular readouts of LRRK2 inhibition. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using Time-Resolved Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (TR-FRET) technology, we developed a high-throughput cellular assay for monitoring LRRK2 phosphorylation at Ser935. LRRK2-Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) fusions were expressed in cells via BacMam. Phosphorylation at Ser935 in these cells is detected using a terbium labeled anti-phospho-Ser935 antibody that generates a TR-FRET signal between terbium and GFP. LRRK2 wild-type and G2019S are constitutively phosphorylated at Ser935 in cells as measured by TR-FRET. The phosphorylation level is reduced for the R1441C mutant and little could be detected for the kinase-dead mutant D1994A. The TR-FRET cellular assay was further validated using reported LRRK2 inhibitors including LRRK2-IN-1 and our results confirmed that inhibition of LRRK2 can reduce the phosphorylation level at Ser935. To demonstrate the utility of this assay for screening, we profiled a small library of 1120 compounds. Three known LRRK2 inhibitors were identified and 16 hits were followed up in the TR-FRET and a cytotoxicity assay. Interestingly, out of the top 16 hits, five are known inhibitors of IκB phosphorylation, two CHK1 and two CDC25 inhibitors. Thirteen hits were further tested in a biochemical LRRK2 kinase activity assay and Western blot analysis for their effects on the phosphorylation of Ser910, Ser935, Ser955 and Ser973. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We developed a TR-FRET cellular assay for LRRK2 Ser935 phosphorylation that can be applied to the screening for LRRK2 inhibitors. We report for the first time that several compounds such as IKK16, CHK1 inhibitors and GW441756 can inhibit LRRK2 Ser935 phosphorylation in cells and LRRK2 kinase activity in vitro.

Measurement of the cellular deacetylase activity of SIRT1 on p53 via LanthaScreen® technology.

Upon genomic insult, the tumor suppressor p53 is phosphorylated and acetylated at specific serine and lysine residues, increasing its stability and transactivation function. Deacetylases, including the type III histone deacetylase SIRT1, remove acetyl groups from p53 and counterbalance acetyltransferase activity during a DNA damage response. This report describes a series of high-throughput LanthaScreen® time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) immunoassays for detection of intracellular p53 phosphorylation of Ser15 and acetylation of Lys382 upon treatment with DNA damage agents, such as etoposide. These assays were used to measure the deacetylase activity of SIRT1 and/or Type I/II Histone deacetylases (HDACs). First, BacMam-mediated overexpression of SIRT1 resulted in dose-dependent deacetylation of GFP-p53 following etoposide treatment of U-2 OS cells, confirming that GFP-p53 serves as a SIRT1 substrate in this assay format. Further, overexpression of the acetyltransferase p300 via BacMam increased the acetylation of GFP-p53 at Lys382. Next, siRNA-mediated knockdown of SIRT1 resulted in increased GFP-p53 acetylation, indicating that endogenous SIRT1 activity can also be measured in U-2 OS cells. Consistent with these results, GFP-p53 acetylation was also increased upon treatment of cells with a small-molecule inhibitor of SIRT1, EX-527. The effect of this compound was dramatically increased when used in combination with chemotherapeutic drug and/or the HDAC inhibitor Trichostatin A, confirming a proposed synergistic mechanism of p53 deacetylation by SIRT1 and Type I/II HDACs. Taken together, the cellular assays described here can be used as high-throughput alternatives to traditional immunoassays such as western blotting for identifying pharmacological modulators of specific p53-modifying enzymes.

BacMam-enabled LanthaScreen cellular assays for PI3K/Akt pathway compound profiling in disease-relevant cell backgrounds.

The authors recently reported the development and application of multiple LanthaScreen cellular assays to interrogate specific steps within the PI3K/Akt pathway. The importance of this signaling cascade in regulating fundamental aspects of cell growth and survival, as well as in the progression of cancer, underscores the need for portable cell-based assays for compound profiling in multiple disease-relevant cell backgrounds. To meet this need, the authors have now expanded their LanthaScreen assay platform across a variety of cell types using a gene delivery technology known as BacMam. Here, they have demonstrated the successful detection of Akt-dependent phosphorylation of PRAS40 at Thr246 in 10 different cell lines harboring mutations known to activate the PI3K/Akt pathway. In addition, they generated inhibitory profiles of 17 known pathway inhibitors in these same cells to validate the approach of using the BacMam-enabled LanthaScreen cellular assay format to rapidly profile compounds in disease-relevant cell types. Importantly, their results provide a broad illustration of how the genetic alterations that affect PI3K/Akt signaling can also influence the inhibitory profile of a given compound.

Design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationships of 3-ethynyl-1H-indazoles as inhibitors of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling pathway.

A new series of 3-ethynyl-1H-indazoles has been synthesized and evaluated in both biochemical and cell-based assays as potential kinase inhibitors. Interestingly, a selected group of compounds identified from this series exhibited low micromolar inhibition against critical components of the PI3K pathway, targeting PI3K, PDK1, and mTOR kinases. A combination of computational modeling and structure-activity relationship studies reveals a possible novel mode for PI3K inhibition, resulting in a PI3Kα isoform-specific compound. Hence, by targeting the most oncogenic mutant isoform of PI3K, the compound displays antiproliferative activity both in monolayer human cancer cell cultures and in three-dimensional tumor models. Because of its favorable physicochemical, in vitro ADME and drug-like properties, we propose that this novel ATP mimetic scaffold could prove useful in deriving novel selecting and multikinase inhibitors for clinical use.

A toolbox approach to high-throughput TR-FRET-based SUMOylation and DeSUMOylation assays.

The posttranslational modification of target substrates by the ubiquitin-like proteins, specifically the small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO), has emerged as an essential mechanism to regulate protein function and control intracellular trafficking. Traditional methods for monitoring either the attachment or removal of SUMO, such as gel electrophoresis or western blot, are effective but typically suffer from a lack of throughput. Here, we report the development and application of time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET)-based assays capable of detecting SUMOylation or deSUMOylation in a high-throughput screening (HTS) format. Using Ran GTPase-activating protein (RanGAP1) as a model target substrate, we have demonstrated that the SUMOylation of this protein can be detected using LanthaScreen (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) TR-FRET technology. Additionally, we have generated reagents useful for assessing the deSUMOylation activity of a sentrin-specific protease. All assays are performed in 384-well format and display excellent statistical data (Z' > 0.7) with high signal-to-background levels. Together, this collection of tools can be utilized in a modular approach to develop HTS assays for inhibitors of SUMOylation or deSUMOylation.

Bifunctional ligands that target cells displaying the alpha v beta3 integrin.

Strategies to eliminate tumor cells have long been sought. We envisioned that a small molecule could be used to decorate the offending cells with immunogenic carbohydrates and evoke an immune response. To this end, we describe the synthesis of bifunctional ligands possessing two functional motifs: one binds a cell-surface protein and the other binds a naturally occurring human antibody. Our conjugates combine an RGD-based peptidomimetic, to target cells displaying the alpha v beta3 integrin, with the carbohydrate antigen galactosyl-alpha(1-3)galactose [Galalpha(1-3)Gal or alpha-Gal]. To generate such bifunctional ligands, we designed and synthesized RGD mimetics 1 b and 2 c, which possess a free amino group for modification. These compounds were used to generate bifunctional derivatives 1 c and 2 d, with dimethyl squarate serving as the linchpin; thus, our synthetic approach is modular. To evaluate the binding of our peptidomimetics to the target alpha v beta3-displaying cells, we implemented a cell-adhesion assay. Results from this assay indicate that the designed, small-molecule ligands inhibit alpha v beta3-dependent cell adhesion. Additionally, our most effective bifunctional ligand exhibits a high degree of selectivity (4000-fold) for alpha v beta3 over the related alpha v beta5 integrin, a result that augurs its utility in specific cell targeting. Finally, we demonstrate that the bifunctional ligands can bind to alpha v beta3-positive cells and recruit human anti-Gal antibodies. These results indicate that both the integrin-binding and the anti-Gal-binding moieties can act simultaneously. Bifunctional conjugates of this type can facilitate the development of new methods for targeting cancer cells by exploiting endogenous antibodies. We anticipate that our modifiable alpha v beta3-binding ligands will be valuable in a variety of applications, including drug delivery and tumor targeting.

Selective tumor cell targeting using low-affinity, multivalent interactions.

This report highlights the advantages of low-affinity, multivalent interactions to recognize one cell type over another. Our goal was to devise a strategy to mediate selective killing of tumor cells, which are often distinguished from normal cells by their higher levels of particular cell surface receptors. To test whether multivalent interactions could lead to highly specific cell targeting, we used a chemically synthesized small-molecule ligand composed of two distinct motifs: (1) an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptidomimetic that binds tightly (Kd approximately 10(-9)M) to alphavbeta3 integrins and (2) the galactosyl-alpha(1-3)galactose (alpha-Gal epitope), which is recognized by human anti-alpha-galactosyl antibodies (anti-Gal). Importantly, anti-Gal binding requires a multivalent presentation of carbohydrate residues; anti-Gal antibodies interact weakly with the monovalent oligosaccharide (Kd approximately 10(-5)M) but bind tightly (Kd approximately 10(-11) M) to multivalent displays of alpha-Gal epitopes. Such a display is generated when the bifunctional conjugate decorates a cell possessing a high level of alphavbeta3 integrin; the resulting cell surface, which presents many alpha-Gal epitopes, can recruit anti-Gal, thereby triggering complement-mediated lysis. Only those cells with high levels of the integrin receptor are killed. In contrast, doxorubicin tethered to the RGD-based ligand affords indiscriminate cell death. These results highlight the advantages of exploiting the type of the multivalent recognition processes used by physiological systems to discriminate between cells. The selectivity of this strategy is superior to traditional, abiotic, high-affinity targeting methods. Our results have implications for the treatment of cancer and other diseases characterized by the presence of deleterious cells.

Point of attachment and sequence of immobilized peptide-acridine conjugates control affinity for nucleic acids.

Screening of combinatorial libraries by spatial arraying strategies requires library members to be solid-phase immobilized. However, for nucleic acid ligands that bind via intercalation, immobilization may inhibit binding if the tethering functionality is present at the edge of the heterocyle that approaches the duplex during the binding reaction. We report here a method for immobilizing peptide-acridine conjugates (PACs) via either their C- or their N-terminus, corresponding to functionalization at either the 4- or the 9-position of acridine, respectively, and for assaying the nucleic acid binding properties of the resulting resins. We find that both the amino acid sequence of the PAC as well as its point of attachment to the solid support are important in determining affinity for duplex nucleic acids. These results have implications for the design of future on-bead and microarray-based selections and in understanding the nucleic acid binding of functionalized intercalators.

Selection of small-molecule mediators of the RNA regulation of PKR, the RNA-dependent protein kinase.

The RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is a component of the interferon antiviral response and a member of the class of RNA-binding proteins with a double-stranded RNA binding motif. PKR is activated when it binds to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) or viral replicative intermediates that comprise dsRNA and this activation results in the inhibition of protein synthesis. Some viruses circumvent this activity through the synthesis of highly structured decoy RNAs that bind PKR and block activation. Small-molecule mediators of the binding of PKR to these RNA inhibitors would be useful tools to further define the importance of specific PKR-RNA complexes in vivo and may possess antiviral activity. Here we investigate the ability of a library of structurally diverse peptide-acridine conjugates (PACs) to target a complex formed between the dsRNA binding domain (dsRBD) of PKR and a viral RNA inhibitor. We used a novel screening method based on the cleavage of RNA ligands with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.Fe modified protein. The selection revealed a PAC (9-anilinoacridine-4-Hyp-Nap-Nap, where Hyp is trans-4-hydroxyproline and Nap is 1-napthylalanine), able to inhibit the binding of the PKR dsRBD to RNA with an IC(50) value of 10 +/- 5 microM. Furthermore, the structural requirements for inhibition by the selected PAC were substantiated in an independent PKR activation assay. We found that the potency of inhibition by an intercalating ligand can be increased by the introduction of a substituent that does not increase the overall charge of the molecule. This result is important for the design of inhibitors of PKR-RNA binding that function inside living cells.

Recognition of double-stranded RNA by proteins and small molecules.

Molecular recognition of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a key event for numerous biological pathways including the trafficking, editing, and maturation of cellular RNA, the interferon antiviral response, and RNA interference. Over the past several years, our laboratory has studied proteins and small molecules that bind dsRNA with the goal of understanding and controlling the binding selectivity. In this review, we discuss members of the dsRBM class of proteins that bind dsRNA. The dsRBM is an approximately 70 amino acid sequence motif found in a variety of dsRNA-binding proteins. Recent results have led to a new appreciation of the ability of these proteins to bind selectivity to certain sites on dsRNA. This property is discussed in light of the RNA selectivity observed in the function of two proteins that contain dsRBMs, the RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) and an adenosine deaminase that acts on dsRNA (ADAR2). In addition, we introduce peptide-acridine conjugates (PACs), small molecules designed to control dsRBM-RNA interactions. These intercalating molecules bear variable peptide appendages at opposite edges of an acridine heterocycle. This design imparts the potential to exploit differences in groove characteristics and/or base-pair dynamics at binding sites to achieve selective binding.