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ABSTRACT: Cardiel-Sánchez, S, Rubio-Peirotén, A, Molina-Molina, A, García-Cebadera Gómez, C, Almenar-Arasanz, A, Ráfales-Perucha, A, Roche-Seruendo, LE, and Cartón-Llorente, A. Effects of plyometric training on running biomechanics and jumping ability of U14 athletes. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-Children under the age of 14 years (U14) are particularly susceptible to musculoskeletal disorders because of growth spurts. Plyometric training has been shown to be beneficial for both injury reduction and performance enhancement. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of plyometric training on the jumping ability and running biomechanics of U14 track-and-field athletes. A single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Thirty-five (18 female and 17 male) U14 athletes (age: 12.5 ± 1.2 years; height: 152.3 ± 7.7 cm; body mass: 47.3 ± 6.9 kg) were randomized into experimental and control groups. All subjects completed their usual training for 4 weeks, and those in the intervention group added a low-volume plyometric program twice a week. Preintervention and postintervention assessments included a countermovement jump (CMJ) to determine maximum jump height, 10-second repeated jumps to assess reactive strength index (RSI), and a 3-minute run at 12 km·h-1 to analyze running kinematics contact time, flight time, step length (SL), step frequency (SF), mean power output, vertical spring stiffness, and leg spring stiffness (LSS). The results revealed no main effect of time for any of the variables. A group-by-time interaction was found for RSI (p = 0.045) in the intervention group, whereas a significant increase in LSS was also found after the intervention (p = 0.031). However, no changes in CMJ height or other running parameters were observed. The significance level for the study was set at ρ ≤ 0.05. Plyometric-jump training may improve the stretch-shortening cycle in U14 athletes by increasing RSI and LSS. Athletes and coaches in running-related sports should be aware of these short-term effects when aiming to optimize the energy storage and release mechanism.
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Participants in trail running races must carry their equipment throughout the race. This additional load modifies running biomechanics. Novel running powermeters allow further analyses of key running metrics. This study aims to determine the acute effects of running with extra weights on running power generation and running kinematics at submaximal speed. Fifteen male amateur trail runners completed three treadmill running sessions with a weighted vest of 0-, 5-, or 10% of their body mass (BM), at 8, 10, 12, and 14 km·h-1. Mean power output (MPO), leg spring stiffness (LSS), ground contact time (GCT), flight time (FT), step frequency (SF), step length (SL), vertical oscillation (VO), and duty factor (DF) were estimated with the Stryd wearable system. The one-way ANOVA revealed higher GCT and MPO and lower DF, VO, and FT for the +10% BM compared to the two other conditions (p < 0.001) for the running speeds evaluated (ES: 0.2-7.0). After post-hoc testing, LSS resulted to be higher for +5% BM than for the +10% and +0% BM conditions (ES: 0.2 and 0.4). Running with lighter loads (i.e., +5% BM) takes the principle of specificity in trail running one step further, enhancing running power generation and LSS.
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Atletas , Teste de Esforço , Humanos , Masculino , Fenômenos BiomecânicosRESUMO
The physical demands of intermittent sports require a preparation based, by definition, on high-intensity actions and variable recovery periods. Innovative local positioning systems make it possible to track players during matches and collect their distance, speed, and acceleration data. The purpose of this study was to describe the worst-case scenarios of high-performance handball players within 5-minute periods and per playing position. The sample was composed of 180 players (27 goalkeepers, 44 wings, 56 backs, 23 centre backs and 30 line players) belonging to the first eight highest ranked teams participating in the European Men's Handball Championship held in January 2022. They were followed during the 28 matches they played through a local positioning system worn on their upper bodies. Total and high-speed distance covered (m), pace (m/min), player load (a.u.) and high-intensity accelerations and decelerations (n) were recorded for the twelve 5-min periods of each match. Data on full-time player average and peak demands were included in the analysis according to each playing position. A systematic three-phase analysis process was designed: 1) information capture of match activities and context through sensor networks, the LPS system, and WebScraping techniques; 2) information processing based on big data analytics; 3) extraction of results based on a descriptive analytics approach. The descriptive cross-sectional study of worst-case scenarios revealed an ~17% increment in total distance covered and pace, with a distinct ~51% spike in high-intensity actions. Significant differences between playing positions were found, with effect sizes ranging from moderate to very large (0.7-5.1). Line players, in particular, showed a lower running pace peak (~10 m/min) and wings ran longer distances at high speed (> 4.4 m/s) than the rest of the field players (~76 m). The worst-case scenario assessment of handball player locomotion demands will help handball coaches and physical trainers to design tasks that replicate these crucial match moments, thus improving performance based on a position-specific approach.
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This study aimed to determine the influence of footwear condition, foot-strike pattern and step frequency on running spatiotemporal parameters and lower-body stiffness during treadmill running. Thirty-one amateur endurance runners performed a two-session protocol (shod and barefoot). Each session consisted of two trials at 12 km · h-1 over 5 minutes altering step frequency every minute (150, 160, 170, 180 and 190 spm). First, participants were instructed to land with the heel first; after completion, the same protocol was repeated landing with the forefoot first. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed significant differences for footwear condition, foot-strike pattern and step frequency for each variable: percent contact time, percent flight time, vertical stiffness and leg stiffness (all p < 0.001). The results demonstrate greater estimated vertical and leg stiffness when running barefoot for both foot-strike patterns showing the largest values for barefoot+forefoot condition. Likewise, both vertical and leg stiffness became greater as step frequency increased. The proper manipulation of these variables facilitates our understanding of running performance and assist in training programmes design and injury management.
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Marcha , Corrida , Fenômenos Biomecânicos , Pé , Humanos , SapatosRESUMO
Several studies have already analysed power output in running or the relation between VO2max and power production as factors related to running economy; however, there are no studies assessing the difference in power output between shod and barefoot running. This study aims to identify the effect of footwear on the power output endurance runner. Forty-one endurance runners (16 female) were evaluated at shod and barefoot running over a one-session running protocol at their preferred comfortable velocity (11.71 ± 1.07 km·h−1). The mean power output (MPO) and normalized MPO (MPOnorm), form power, vertical oscillation, leg stiffness, running effectiveness and spatiotemporal parameters were obtained using the Stryd™ foot pod system. Additionally, footstrike patterns were measured using high-speed video at 240 Hz. No differences were noted in MPO (p = 0.582) and MPOnorm (p = 0.568), whereas significant differences were found in form power, in both absolute (p = 0.001) and relative values (p < 0.001), running effectiveness (p = 0.006), stiffness (p = 0.002) and vertical oscillation (p < 0.001). By running barefoot, lower values for contact time (p < 0.001) and step length (p = 0.003) were obtained with greater step frequency (p < 0.001), compared to shod running. The prevalence of footstrike pattern significantly differs between conditions, with 19.5% of runners showing a rearfoot strike, whereas no runners showed a rearfoot strike during barefoot running. Running barefoot showed greater running effectiveness in comparison with shod running, and was consistent with lower values in form power and lower vertical oscillation. From a practical perspective, the long-term effect of barefoot running drills might lead to increased running efficiency and leg stiffness in endurance runners, affecting running economy.
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Corrida , Sapatos , Fenômenos Biomecânicos , Feminino , Pé , Marcha , Humanos , Estado NutricionalRESUMO
Wearable technology has allowed for the real-time assessment of mechanical work employed in several sporting activities. Through novel power metrics, Functional Threshold Power have shown a reliable indicator of training intensities. This study aims to determine the relationship between mean power output (MPO) values obtained during three submaximal running time trials (i.e., 10 min, 20 min, and 30 min) and the functional threshold power (FTP). Twenty-two recreationally trained male endurance runners completed four submaximal running time trials of 10, 20, 30, and 60 min, trying to cover the longest possible distance on a motorized treadmill. Absolute MPO (W), normalized MPO (W/kg) and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for each time trial with a power meter device attached to the shoelaces. All simplified FTP trials analyzed (i.e., FTP10, FTP20, and FTP30) showed a significant association with the calculated FTP (p < 0.001) for both MPO and normalized MPO, whereas stronger correlations were found with longer time trials. Individual correction factors (ICF% = FTP60/FTPn) of ~90% for FTP10, ~94% for FTP20, and ~96% for FTP30 were obtained. The present study procures important practical applications for coaches and athletes as it provides a more accurate estimation of FTP in endurance running through less fatiguing, reproducible tests.
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Corrida , Dispositivos Eletrônicos Vestíveis , Animais , Atletas , Teste de Esforço , Fadiga , Humanos , Masculino , Consumo de Oxigênio , Resistência FísicaRESUMO
Mechanical power may act as a key indicator for physiological and mechanical changes during running. In this scoping review, we examine the current evidences about the use of power output (PW) during endurance running and the different commercially available wearable sensors to assess PW. The Boolean phrases endurance OR submaximal NOT sprint AND running OR runner AND power OR power meter, were searched in PubMed, MEDLINE, and SCOPUS. Nineteen studies were finally selected for analysis. The current evidence about critical power and both power-time and power-duration relationships in running allow to provide coaches and practitioners a new promising setting for PW quantification with the use of wearable sensors. Some studies have assessed the validity and reliability of different available wearables for both kinematics parameters and PW when running but running power meters need further research before a definitive conclusion regarding its validity and reliability.
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Resistência Física , Corrida/fisiologia , Fenômenos Biomecânicos , Humanos , Reprodutibilidade dos TestesRESUMO
The assessment of leg asymmetries is gaining scientific interest due to its potential impact on performance and injury development. Athletes around puberty exhibit increased gait variability due to a non-established running pattern. This study aims to describe the asymmetries in the spatiotemporal running parameters in developmentally aged athletes. Forty athletes under 14 (U14) (22 females and 18 males) were assessed running on a treadmill at constant speeds of 12 and 14 km·h-1 for 3 min. Step length, step frequency, along with contact (CT) and flight time, both in absolute values and as a percentage of step time, were recorded using a RunScribe sensor attached to the laces of each shoe. U14 runners exhibited high bilateral symmetry in the spatiotemporal parameters of running, with mean asymmetry values (1-5.7%) lower than the intra-limb coefficient of variation (1.7-9.6%). Furthermore, bilateral asymmetries did not vary between the two speeds. An individual-based interpretation of asymmetries identified subjects with consistent asymmetries at both speeds, particularly in terms of CT and contact ratio (%, CT/step time). This study confirms the high symmetry of pubertal runners and paves the way for the application of portable running assessment technology to detect asymmetries on an individual basis.
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BACKGROUND: Performance in jumping and change of direction tests are good proxies to reflect the skill level during soccer-specific actions. Greater inter-leg asymmetries have been identified as a risk factor for developing acute and overuse injuries and jeopardizing soccer performance. The aim of this study was to assess the association between asymmetry in the unilateral vertical and horizontal jump tests, ankle range of motion, linear velocity, and change of direction in a sample of highly trained adult female soccer players. METHODS: Thirty-eight highly trained female soccer players underwent a testing protocol including ankle dorsiflexion, single leg jumps for height (CMJ), distance (HJ), 40 m sprint and 180° change of direction tests. RESULTS: Within-session reliability was acceptable (CV ≤ 7.9%), and relative reliability showed good to excellent (ICC: 0.83 to 0.99). The one-way ANOVA reported higher inter-limb differences for change of direction deficit (10.9 ± 8.04%) and single leg CMJ (5.70 ± 5.22%). Pearson correlations highlighted significant relationships between horizontal jump asymmetries and ankle dorsiflexion (r = -0.41), CMJ (r = -0.36 to -0.49) and HJ (r = -0.28 to -0.56). CONCLUSIONS: Assessing inter-limb asymmetries through different methods can help scientists understand the specificity of their detrimental effects on soccer performance. Practitioners should be aware of these specificities as well as the magnitude and direction of the asymmetries when aiming to improve specific on-field skills.
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Introduction: Women's football require optimal neuromuscular system development for injury prevention and performance optimization. Standardized neuromuscular training programs have shown promising results in reducing injuries and functional asymmetries, but evidence on their impact on performance is limited. Methods: This research examined the effects of a 10-week neuromuscular training program on physical performance and asymmetries in female football players. Thirty-eight female players from two Spanish Second Division women's football teams participated in the study. The physical performance tests used were: ankle dorsiflexion, bilateral and unilateral horizontal jump, bilateral and unilateral vertical countermovement jump, 40 m sprint including partial times at 10, 20 and 30 m and the 505 test for change of direction evaluation. For 10 weeks, players in the experimental group performed three weekly 24-min neuromuscular training sessions. Participants in the control group completed their normal 24-min strength and conditioning program. Results: The main results were that maximal linear velocity and change of direction skills showed the most notable improvements [effect size (ES), 0.46 to 0.59] after implementation of the training program, ankle dorsiflexion and jumping skills, also improved although, to a lesser extent (ES, <0.35) while asymmetries between limbs were reduced. Maximal running speed improved in the intervention group (p < 0.001) with a mean ES -0.59. Discussion: We conclude that a 10-week neuromuscular training program can be a sufficient stimulus to improve football-specific performance variables in high-level female football players. Therefore, female players and coaches should be aware that weekly inclusion of strength, power and dynamic balance exercises following a neuromuscular paradigm is helpful for football-specific performance improvement.
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OBJECTIVES: Tendons play a crucial role allowing the storage and release of mechanical energy during the running cycle. Running kinematics, including duty factor, constitute a basic element of the runner's biomechanics, and can determine their performance. This study aimed to analyze the link between Achilles tendon and plantar fascia morphology and running parameters, considering the influence of wearing shoes versus running barefoot. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: 44 participants (30 men and 14 women) engaged in two running sessions, one with shoes and one without, both lasting 3â¯min at a consistent speed of 12â¯km/h. We captured running kinematic data using a photoelectric cell system throughout the sessions. Before the trials, we measured the thickness and cross-sectional area of both the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia using ultrasound. RESULTS: The Pearson test revealed a significant correlation (pâ¯<â¯0,05) between Achilles tendon and plantar fascia morphology and contact time (râ¯>â¯-0.325), flight time (râ¯>â¯-0.325) and duty factor (ratio of ground contact to stride time) (râ¯>â¯-0.328) during barefoot running. During the shod condition, no significant correlation was found between connective tissue morphology and kinematic variables. CONCLUSIONS: In barefoot running, greater size of the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia results in a reduced duty factor, attributed to longer flight times and shorter contact times.
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Tendão do Calcâneo , Masculino , Humanos , Feminino , Tendão do Calcâneo/diagnóstico por imagem , Estudos Transversais , Pé , Músculo Esquelético , Sapatos , Fenômenos Biomecânicos , FásciaRESUMO
(1) Background: This study was conducted to investigate the effects of a 10-week neuromuscular training program (NMT) on the sum of six skinfolds (Σ6S) and body composition variables in elite female soccer players. (2) Methods: Forty-four Spanish elite female soccer players (age: 24.0 ± 4.2 years; height: 164.3 ± 5.5 cm; body mass: 60.4 ± 5.5 kg; body mass index (BMI): 22.4 ± 2.2 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) or to an experimental group (EG). Participants in the EG completed a specific NMT program of 24 min, three times per week, which included exercises from six different categories (mobility, dynamic stability, anterior chain strength, lumbopelvic control, posterior chain strength, and change of direction). The CG followed their normal strength and conditioning program. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included anthropometric measurements (weight, height, limb circumferences, and bone breadths), and subsequently, body composition factors BMI, Σ6S, body mass, muscle mass, and lean body mass were calculated. Nutrition was standardized by a nutritionist and also load monitored. (3) Results: A two-way mixed analysis of variance (group × time) revealed that there was a significant (p ≤ 0.001) group × time interaction between body mass, fat mass, and Σ6S in favor of NMT. A significant interaction was also observed for body skeletal muscle mass and lean body mass favoring NMT. (4) Conclusions: The application of an NMT program seems to be a useful strategy to improve body composition in elite female soccer players.
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BACKGROUND: The advent of power meters for running has raised the interest of athletes and coaches in new ways of assessing changes in running performance. The aim of this study is to determine the changes in power-related variables during and after a strenuous endurance running time trial. METHODS: Twenty-one healthy male endurance runners, with a personal record of 37.2 ± 1.2 min in a 10-km race, completed a 1-h run on a motorized treadmill trying to cover as much distance as they could. Before and after the time trial the athletes were asked to perform a 3-min run at 12 km h-1. Normalized mean power output, step frequency, form power and running effectiveness were calculated using the Stryd™ power meter. Heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were monitored, and data averaged every 5 min. RESULTS: Despite high levels of exhaustion were reached during the time trial (HRpeak = 176.5 ± 9.8 bpm; RPE = 19.2 ± 0.8), the repeated measures ANOVA resulted in no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05), between each pair of periods for any of the power-related variables. The pairwise comparison (T test) between the non-fatigued and fatigued constant 3-min runs showed an increase in step frequency (p = 0.012) and a decrease in form power (p < 0.001) under fatigue conditions, with no meaningful changes in normalized mean power output and running effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Trained athletes are able to maintain power output and running effectiveness during a high demanding extended run. However, they preferred to reduce the intensity of vertical impacts under fatigue conditions by increasing their step frequency.
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The main purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to compare the effects of strength training (ST) and plyometric training (PT) on vertical jump, linear sprint and change of direction (COD) performance in female soccer players. A systematic search of the PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar and SportDiscus databases revealed 12 studies satisfying the inclusion criteria. The inverse-variance random-effects model for meta-analyses was used. Effect sizes (ES) were represented by the standardized mean difference and presented alongside 95% confidence intervals (CI). The magnitude of the main effect was small to moderate (vertical jump (ES 0.53 (95% CI-0.11, 0.95), Z = 2.47 (p = 0.01); linear sprint (ES -0.66 (95% CI-2.03, -0.21), Z = 2.20 (p = 0.03); COD (ES -0.36 (95% CI-0.68, -0.03), Z = 2.17 (p = 0.03)). Subgroup analyses were performed (i.e., ST and PT duration, frequency, session duration and total number of sessions), revealing no significant subgroup differences (p = 0.12-0.88). In conclusion, PT provides better benefits than ST to improve vertical jump, linear sprint and COD performance in female soccer players. However, significant limitations in the current literature prevent assured PT and ST prescription recommendations being made.
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Desempenho Atlético , Exercício Pliométrico , Treinamento Resistido , Futebol , Feminino , Humanos , PubMedRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Musculotendinous reactive strength is a key factor for the utilization of elastic energy in sporting activities such as running. AIM: To evaluate the relationship between musculotendinous reactive strength and lower-limb stiffness during running as well as to identify age-related differences in both variables. METHODS: Fifty-nine amateur endurance runners performed three 20-cm drop jumps and a constant 3-min easy run on a motorized treadmill. Reactive strength index and dynamic lower-limb stiffness were calculated with a photoelectric cell system by jumping and running, respectively. Additionally, sit to stand difference in plantar arch height was assessed as a static lower-limb stiffness measure. The cluster analysis allows the comparison between younger and older runners. RESULTS: No significant correlations were found between jumping reactive strength and running lower-limb stiffness. The younger group performed better at drop jumps (p = 0.023, ES = 0.82), whereas higher-but-no-significant results were found for reactive strength index and stiffness-related metrics. CONCLUSIONS: Musculotendinous vertical reactiveness may not be transferred to combined vertical and horizontal movements such as running.
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Teste de Esforço , Perna (Membro) , Atletas , HumanosRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The lower limb behaves like a spring compressing and decompressing during running, where lower-limb stiffness is one of the most influential factors. This prospective observational study is aimed at examining the relationship between the connective tissue morphology and lower-limb stiffness and investigating whether the barefoot/shod condition influences on such relationship. METHODS: 14 male amateur runners (10-km time trial <50') were included. Data were recorded over one session, where participants ran 2 trials (i.e., barefoot and shod conditions) of 3 minutes at 12 km/h, where running spatiotemporal parameters and vertical (Kvert) and leg stiffness (Kleg) were obtained. Prior to testing trials, thickness and cross-sectional area (CSA) were recorded for Achilles (AT) and patellar tendons (PT) and plantar fascia (PF) with ultrasound. RESULTS: Under barefoot condition, a positive correlation was found between Kleg and AT-thickness and CSA and PF-thickness; and between Kvert and AT-thickness and PF thickness. Under shod condition, a positive correlation was found between Kleg and PT-CSA and PT-thickness, and between Kvert and PT-CSA and PT-thickness. CONCLUSIONS: The results reveal a specificity of the relationship between the lower-limb stiffness and the morphology of the connective tissue. Greater tendon shows higher lower-limb stiffness when that tendon is specially demanded by the function.
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Corrida , Fenômenos Biomecânicos , Tecido Conjuntivo , Humanos , Masculino , Estudos Prospectivos , SapatosRESUMO
The influence of the morphologic characteristics of connective tissue, which plays an essential role during sports activities, on sporting tasks needs further research given the controversial findings reported in the literature. This study aimed at examining the relationship between lower limb connective tissue morphology and drop jump reactivity and determining the influence of sex and athletic performance level. A total of 30 men and 14 women, runners, executed 6 drop jumps (3 × 20 cm and 30 cm height respectively) and their thickness and cross-sectional area were recorded for Achilles and patellar tendons and plantar fascia. No significant results were found in the relationship between the morphology of the connective tissue and reactivity strength index for both sexes. Significant sex differences were found, while women showed greater values (p < 0.005) for Achilles tendon and plantar fascia; men showed greater values for reactivity strength index and drop jump performance (p < 0.001). The present study shows a limited relationship between connective tissue morphology and drop jump reactivity. Additionally, women showed greater normalized values for Achilles tendon and plantar fascia, and men showed greater reactivity strength index and jumping performance values. No relationships between athletic performance level and connective tissue were found.
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Tendão do Calcâneo , Desempenho Atlético , Tecido Conjuntivo , Feminino , Humanos , Extremidade Inferior , Masculino , Músculo EsqueléticoRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Describing the response of spatiotemporal gait characteristics, and related variables such as variability and stiffness, to different stressors is important to better understand spring-mass model. RESEARCH QUESTION: This study aimed to examine the effect of fatigue induced by a running protocol on spatiotemporal gait parameters, step variability and vertical (Kvert) and leg stiffness (Kleg) during running on a treadmill. METHODS: Twenty-two trained male endurance runners performed a 60-min time trial run. An analysis of spatiotemporal parameters (contact time [CT], flight time [FT], step frequency [SF] and step length [SL]), step variability (in terms of coefficient of variation [CV]) and stiffness was conducted in two different conditions: non-fatigued (before the protocol) and fatigued (after the protocol). RESULTS: The pairwise comparisons (i.e., non-fatigued vs. fatigued condition) indicated that temporal parameters (i.e., CT and FT) experienced significant changes (p = 0.001 and <0.001, respectively). Step variability increased in presence of fatigue, with higher CV in CT (p = 0.039), FT (p = 0.005), SF (p = 0.046) and SL (p = 0.027) after the running protocol. The Kleg experienced a reduction in the fatigued condition (p < 0.001) whereas the Kvert remained unchanged (p = 0.602). SIGNIFICANCE: The results indicate that fatigue induced by a 60-min time trial run causes some adaptations in spatiotemporal gait characteristics and stiffness in trained endurance runners. Specifically, in the presence of fatigue, the athletes showed greater CT and shorter FT, higher step variability and lower leg stiffness.