Evaluating the Efficacy of Large Language Models in CPT Coding for Craniofacial Surgery: A Comparative Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The advent of Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT has introduced significant advancements in various surgical disciplines. These developments have led to an increased interest in the utilization of LLMs for Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) coding in surgery. With CPT coding being a complex and time-consuming process, often exacerbated by the scarcity of professional coders, there is a pressing need for innovative solutions to enhance coding efficiency and accuracy. METHODS: This observational study evaluated the effectiveness of 5 publicly available large language models-Perplexity.AI, Bard, BingAI, ChatGPT 3.5, and ChatGPT 4.0-in accurately identifying CPT codes for craniofacial procedures. A consistent query format was employed to test each model, ensuring the inclusion of detailed procedure components where necessary. The responses were classified as correct, partially correct, or incorrect based on their alignment with established CPT coding for the specified procedures. RESULTS: The results indicate that while there is no overall significant association between the type of AI model and the correctness of CPT code identification, there are notable differences in performance for simple and complex CPT codes among the models. Specifically, ChatGPT 4.0 showed higher accuracy for complex codes, whereas Perplexity.AI and Bard were more consistent with simple codes. DISCUSSION: The use of AI chatbots for CPT coding in craniofacial surgery presents a promising avenue for reducing the administrative burden and associated costs of manual coding. Despite the lower accuracy rates compared with specialized, trained algorithms, the accessibility and minimal training requirements of the AI chatbots make them attractive alternatives. The study also suggests that priming AI models with operative notes may enhance their accuracy, offering a resource-efficient strategy for improving CPT coding in clinical practice. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the feasibility and potential benefits of integrating LLMs into the CPT coding process for craniofacial surgery. The findings advocate for further refinement and training of AI models to improve their accuracy and practicality, suggesting a future where AI-assisted coding could become a standard component of surgical workflows, aligning with the ongoing digital transformation in health care.

Full-thickness porcine burns infected with Staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be effectively treated with topical antibiotics.

Burn and blast injuries are frequently complicated by invasive infections, which lead to poor wound healing, delay in treatment, disability, or death. Traditional approach centers on early debridement, fluid resuscitation, and adjunct intravenous antibiotics. These modalities often prove inadequate in burns, where compromised local vasculature limits the tissue penetration of systemic antibiotics. Here, we demonstrate the treatment of infected burns with topical delivery of ultrahigh concentrations of antibiotics. Standardized burns were inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. After debridement, burns were treated with either gentamicin (2 mg/mL) or minocycline (1 mg/mL) at concentrations greater than 1,000 times the minimum inhibitory concentration. Amount of bacteria was quantified in tissue biopsies and wound fluid following treatment. After six days of gentamicin or minocycline treatment, S. aureus counts decreased from 4.2 to 0.31 and 0.72 log CFU/g in tissue, respectively. Similarly, P. aeruginosa counts decreased from 2.5 to 0.0 and 1.5 log CFU/g in tissue, respectively. Counts of both S. aureus and P. aeruginosa remained at a baseline of 0.0 log CFU/mL in wound fluid for both treatment groups. The findings here demonstrate that super-therapeutic concentrations of antibiotics delivered topically can rapidly reduce bacterial counts in infected full-thickness porcine burns. This treatment approach may aid wound bed preparation and accelerate time to grafting.

Osteocutaneous Second-Toe Free Flap as Alternative Option for Repair of Anterior Oronasal Fistula: Long-Term Results in Selected Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Palatal fistulas anterior to the incisive foramen, generally seen as a complication of cleft lip and cleft palate repair, can be extremely difficult to repair. The requirements of the defect necessitate nasal lining, oral lining, and bone for maxillary arch continuity. Local pedicled flap has limited use in such patients with extensive scarring from previous surgeries. The authors have recently described a technique involving osteocutaneous free-tissue transfer of second toe for anterior oronasal fistulas. METHODS: The authors describe their experience of patients with anterior oronasal fistula who underwent osteocutaneous free-tissue transfer of second toe. Between 1991 and 2014, 3 patients with oronasal fistulas were operated utilizing bilaminar osteocutaneous free tissue transfer. Described are the surgical decision making, postoperative course, and surgical outcomes. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients at the time of the procedure was 45.3 years with a mean follow-up of 12.6 years. All the patients had significant improvement of their regurgitation and speech difficulty. One of the patients with very large fistula had recurrence of the fistula which was repaired by local advancement of the original free flap. CONCLUSIONS: Use of osteocutanous second-toe free flap can provide complete coverage of the fistula with nasal and oral skin lining and provides an alternative option for complicated anterior oronasal fistula.

Innervated Free Gracilis Muscle Transfer: An Experimental Model.

BACKGROUND: Although rodent models have been used extensively for surgical research, their use is limited in microsurgical tissue transfer due to their small size and the small size of their vessels and nerves. Also, fundamental anatomic differences may make rodent surgical models hard to extrapolate to humans. METHODS: In this report, the authors present a rabbit model for studying free tissue transfer and nerve regeneration using the innervated free gracilis muscle flap. In providing this report, the authors are hopeful that this model could become a standard investigative method for future investigators to employ in other translational endeavors. RESULTS: The authors have completed 12 innervated gracilis muscle transfers with 2 surgical site infections requiring antibiotic treatment and postoperative wound care. There were no complications related to flap-viability in the study over an average follow-up of 9 months. The return of muscle function with nerve coaptation is seen initially around 12 weeks and complete return of function occurs by 20 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Rabbits are comparatively small, easily available, easy to handle, and cost-effective experimental models. Use of the innervated gracilis muscle free flap in rabbits can provide an excellent and economic model for free tissue transfer and reinnervation studies.

Ocular Reconstruction Using Bone-Anchored Implants in Irradiated Facial Deformities After Tumor Extirpation.

BACKGROUND: Surgical resection of ocular malignancies can result in complex craniofacial defects that can be difficult to reconstruct with conventional reconstruction techniques. Craniofacial prosthesis supported by bone-anchored implants has evolved as a reliable alternative in such scenarios. METHODS: The authors describe a patient who underwent extensive facial resection secondary to squamous cell carcinoma resulting in significant facial deformities. A bone-anchored osseointegrated implant was used to perform facial reconstruction. RESULTS: The patient had successful reconstruction of her orbit with bone-anchored implant. However, her implant needed to be removed 10 months postoperatively secondary to infection. A second attempt at implant placement has been deferred due to osteonecrosis secondary to adjuvant radiotherapy. CONCLUSION: Bone-anchored implants can provide an elegant alternative in the reconstruction of complex facial defects and provide direct access to surveillance for possible tumor recurrence. However, these bone-supported prosthetics should be used with caution in patients undergoing irradiation.

Deep Temporal Fascia Coverage of the Loading Weight in Paralytic Lagopthalmos Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Use of a weight for lagopthalmos secondary to facial nerve paralysis is the standard technique for achieving effective eyelid closure. However, because of thin and mobile skin of the eyelid and closely opposed implant, there is increased risk of complications such as implant visibility, contour deformity, and implant extrusion. SURGICAL TECHNIQUE: The authors describe a surgical technique involving coverage of the implanted weight with contralateral deep temporal fascia. The deep temporal fascia serves as a hammock to give an interventional barrier to prevent dehiscence of the pocket and extrusion of the ocular implant. It also provides camouflage to the irregular borders of the gold weight. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Autologous coverage of gold weight with deep temporal fascia provides an effective solution to commonly associated complications with the gold weights. The use of contralateral temporal fascia preserves the ipsilateral temporalis muscle for future facial nerve reconstruction.

Use of Pedicled Trapezius Myocutaneous Flap for Posterior Skull Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Soft-tissue defects in posterior skull can be challenging for reconstruction. If related to tumor resection, these wound beds are generally irradiated and can be difficult from a recipient-vessel perspective for a free tissue transfer. Locoregional flaps might prove to be important reconstructive option in such patients. There is a very limited data on the usage of pedicled trapezius myocutaneous flaps for such defects. METHODS: The authors reviewed existing study for usage of trapezius flap for posterior skull repair and used pedicled trapezius myocutaneous flaps based on the descending branch of superficial cervical artery (SCA) for reconstruction of posterior skull soft-tissue defect in an irradiated and infected wound. RESULTS: Two patients were operated for trapezius myocutaneous flap for posterior skull defects complicated by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage and epidural abscess. There was no recipient or donor-site complication at a mean follow-up of 12.5 months. Neither of the 2 patients had any functional deficits for the entire duration of the follow-up. Although this flap was able to help in controlling the CSF leakage in the first patient, it successfully healed the cavity generated from epidural abscess drainage in the second patient. CONCLUSION: The large angle of rotation coupled with the ability to complete the procedure without repositioning the patients makes trapezius myocutaneous flap an attractive option for posterior skull reconstruction. In our limited experience, the pedicled trapezius flaps are a reliable alternative as they are well vascularized and able to obliterate the soft-tissue defect completely. The recipient site healed completely in infected as well as irradiated wound beds. In addition, the donor site can be primarily closed with minimal donor-associated complication.

Malignant Eccrine Spiradenoma of the Face.

Malignant eccrine spiradenoma, or spiradenocarcinoma, is an exceedingly rare sweat-gland tumor, with only 102 reported cases. Low-grade carcinomas are especially rare with only a few cases reported. Because of the limited number of case reports, the biologic behavior of low-grade malignant eccrine spiradenoma is poorly understood and no evidence-based therapeutic approach is established. Here, the authors report a 29-year-old woman who presented with a history of left-sided facial lesions present since the age of 2 months. Histopathologic examination revealed multiple benign spiradenomas, several of which showed foci of low-grade malignant transformation evidenced by loss of the characteristic 2-cell population seen in the benign tumor component. Included are the clinical presentation, histopathologic description, and surgical decision making in an effort to guide recognition of this rare entity.

Measuring and Comparing the Cost-Effectiveness of Surgical Care Delivery in Low-Resource Settings: Cleft Lip and Palate as a Model.

Cleft lip and palate (CLP) care is the longest sustained global effort in humanitarian surgical care. However, the relative cost-effectiveness of surgical delivery approaches remains largely unknown. We assessed the cost-effectiveness of two strategies of CLP surgical care delivery in low resource settings: medical mission and comprehensive care center. We evaluated the medical records and costs for 17 India-based medical missions and a Comprehensive Cleft Care Center in Guwahati, India, from Operation Smile, a humanitarian nongovernmental organization. Age, sex, diagnosis, and procedures were extracted and cost/Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) averted was calculated using a provider's perspective. The disability weights for CLP from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2010 update were used as the reference case. Sensitivity analysis was performed using various disability weights, age-weighting, discounting, and cost perspective. The medical missions treated 3503 patients for first-time cleft procedures and averted 6.00 DALYs per intervention with a cost-effectiveness of $247.42/DALY. The care center cohort included 2778 patients with first-time operations for CLP and averted a mean of 5.96 DALYs per intervention with a cost-effectiveness of $189.81/DALY. The Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) of choosing medical mission over care center is $462.55. The care center provides cleft care with a higher cost-effectiveness, although both models are highly cost-effective in India, in accordance with WHO guidelines. Compared to other global health interventions, cleft care is very cost-effective and investment in cleft surgery might be realistic and achievable in similar resource-constrained environments.

Management of subcondylar mandible fractures in the adult patient.

The treatment of subcondylar mandible fractures is a topic of debate and can be variable even though these fractures are commonly seen. Historically, the treatment algorithm was between open reduction and closed treatment. Now, recent technical advances regarding the use of the endoscope in the field of craniofacial surgery provide additional treatment options. This article aimed to evaluate 3 current management strategies: closed reduction with maxillomandibular fixation, open reduction with internal fixation, and endoscopic-assisted reduction with internal fixation. We present our rationale for surgical decision making and attempt to develop an algorithmic approach to subcondylar fractures. Ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint is a feared complication in these fractures that can lead to the decision to apply maxillomandibular fixation for potentially too short of a period. It is the condylar head fractures within the joint's capsule that contain the hemarthrosis that are often responsible for ankylosis. Subcondylar fractures are, by definition, below the attachment of the joint capsule and in general are devoid of ankylosis. Therefore, maxillomandibular fixation is recommended to be applied for a period of 4 to 6 weeks in most cases. Open reduction with internal fixation can increase the risk for facial nerve damage during the operative approach. However, open reduction is often necessary in fracture patterns with a high degree of displacement. In these cases, facial nerve monitoring can successfully mitigate risks to allow safe exposure for open reduction with internal fixation of subcondylar fractures. Endoscopic-assisted reduction with internal fixation combines the benefits of both techniques while minimizing their associated risks. Nevertheless, reduction can be difficult especially when there is significant medial displacement of the proximal fracture fragment. In our experience, the endoscopic option is optimal for mildly displaced fractures and for the patient with multiple injuries who cannot tolerate closed reduction.

Vascularized treatment options for reconstruction of the ascending mandible with introduction of the femoral medial epicondyle free flap.

Reconstruction of the ascending portion of the mandible, including the angle, ramus, and condyle, can be a challenging surgical problem. Many treatment options are available, but no single procedure has been able to restore long-term form and function in every case. Currently, autologous nonvascularized bone grafts are the most common treatment, with the costochondral graft as the historic leader. Nonvascularized grafts can often restore vertical height and normal function but may face the challenge of long-term durability secondary to bone resorption. Emerging techniques in microvascular surgery may offer an alternative approach with the benefits of resistance to resorption and infection by maintaining a viable blood supply to the graft. Vascularized grafts may thus be used to full advantage in cases where prior surgery, scarring, disrupted vasculature, or radiation damage may compromise the long-term surgical success of a nonvascularized graft. This article reviews the literature and summarizes key points regarding nonvascularized and vascularized treatment modalities for reconstruction of the ascending mandible. In addition, we present the use of the femoral medial epicondyle free flap based on the descending genicular vascular pedicle as a novel reconstruction of the ascending portion of the mandible with minimal donor-site morbidity. Knowledge of all available options will aid the surgeon in achieving the optimal reconstruction for their patient and improve long-term outcomes.

Transillumination of the occult submucous cleft palate.

Occult submucous cleft palate is a congenital deformity characterized by deficient union of the muscles that normally cross the velum and aid in elevation of the soft palate. Despite this insufficient muscle coverage, occult submucous cleft palate by definition lacks clear external anatomic landmarks. This absence of anatomic signs makes diagnosis of occult submucous cleft less obvious, more dependent on ancillary tests, and potentially missed entirely. Current diagnostic methodologies are limited and often are unrevealing in the presurgical patient; however, a missed diagnosis of occult submucous cleft palate can result in velopharyngeal insufficiency and major functional impairment in patients after surgery on the oropharynx. By accurately and easily diagnosing occult submucous cleft palate, it is possible to defer or modify pharyngeal surgical intervention that may further impair velopharyngeal function in susceptible patients. In this report, we introduce transillumination of the soft palate using a transnasal or transoral flexible endoscope as an inexpensive and simple technique for identification of submucous cleft palate. The use of transillumination of an occult submucous cleft palate is illustrated in a patient case and is compared to other current diagnostic methodologies.

Providing more than health care: the dynamics of humanitarian surgery efforts on the local microeconomy.

Humanitarian cleft surgery has long been provided by teams from resource-rich countries traveling for short-term missions to resource-poor countries. After identifying an area of durable unmet need through surgical missions, Operation Smile constructed a permanent center for cleft care in Northeast India. The Operation Smile Guwahati Comprehensive Cleft Care Center (GCCCC) uses a high-volume subspecialized institution to provide safe, quality, comprehensive, and cost-effective cleft care to a highly vulnerable patient population in Assam, India. The purpose of this study was to profile the expenses of several cleft missions carried out in Assam and to compare these to the expenditures of the permanent comprehensive cleft care center. We reviewed financial data from 4 Operation Smile missions in Assam between December 2009 and February 2011 and from the GCCCC for the 2012-2013 fiscal year. Expenses from the 2 models were categorized and compared. In the studied period, 33% of the mission expenses were spent locally compared to 94% of those of the center. The largest expenses in the mission model were air travel (48.8%) and hotel expenses (21.6%) for the team, whereas salaries (46.3%) and infrastructure costs (19.8%) made up the largest fractions of expenses in the center model. The evolution from mission-based care to a specialty hospital model in Guwahati incorporated a transition from vertical inputs to investments in infrastructure and human capital to create a sustainable local care delivery system.

The microenvironment of wound healing.

This review summarizes experiments performed by us and others, examining the importance of the microenvironment to wound healing. The development of a sealed polyurethane wound chamber has allowed us to perform studies evaluating the effects of growth factors, transplanted cells, and other bioactive substances on wound healing. Studies have compared wet, moist, and dry healing, with the conclusion that a wet, incubator-like microenvironment provides the fastest healing with fewest aberrations and least scar formation. The wet environment is also paramount for the survival and proliferation of transplanted cells or tissue, which has been shown in studies of porcine and human wounds. Moreover, high concentrations of antibiotics and other agents can be introduced in the wound chamber, thereby effectively fighting infection, while maintaining safe systemic concentrations. These findings have been used in clinical settings to treat wounds of different types. A titanium chamber has been developed to create an in vivo incubator, which will serve as a regenerative platform for in vivo tissue engineering.

Boston bombings: a surgical view of lessons learned from combat casualty care and the applicability to Boston's terrorist attack.

The Boston bombing incident was a recent civilian mass casualty terrorist event that demonstrated effective transfer of the lessons of combat casualty care to inform effective civilian medical care. Thirty-nine patients were seen at Brigham and Women's Hospital and thirteen patients received emergency surgery in the first few hours after the event. The subsequent management, total hospital days 181, total number of operative procedures 72, and discharging service listing of these thirteen patients illustrate the intensive surgical resources necessary after a civilian bomb attack. Plastic surgery played a role in the multidisciplinary collaboration of the limb salvage efforts and this role can inform the importance of other plastic surgery contributions within mass casualty surgical management. We believe that prepositioned collaborative relationships of plastic surgery, vascular surgery, trauma surgery and orthopedic surgery may offer a model of collaboration for limb salvage that can be applied in military and mass casualty medical care if resources permit. In this attack, effective use of tourniquets was implemented by prehospital medical providers that saved lives and limbs and these actions reaffirm the important lessons learned from combat casualty care. Unfortunately, it is likely that more centers will deal with similar events in the future and it is imperative that we as a community of providers take what lessons we can from battlefield medicine and that we collectively prepare for and engage this future.

Anti-human Leukocyte Antigen Immune Sensitization Effects of Cryopreserved Allograft and Blood Transfusion.

Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) is the most advanced reconstructive technique available to patients who suffer devastating burns to the limbs or face. However, VCA requires donor-recipient matching. Burn patients have been reported to experience sensitization, or the development of anti-human leukocyte antigen antibodies, during resuscitation and wound coverage, potentially precluding them from future VCA. This study sought to investigate the contributions of both blood and allograft to sensitization in burn patients. Four groups were compared: burn patients who received blood products and allograft (group 1), burn patients who received blood products only (group 2), trauma patients who received blood products only (group 3), and healthy volunteer controls (group 4). The average calculated panel-reactive antibody (indicating sensitization) was higher in group 1 compared to group 4 (P = .035). Additionally, the incidence of severe sensitization was higher in group 1 relative to the other groups (P = .049). When comparing groups of patients who had no sensitization, mild sensitization, moderate sensitization, and severe sensitization, there were no significant differences in age, sex, blood products received, total body surface area burned, or allograft used between groups, though severely sensitized patients tended to have greater total body surface area involvement and received more units of packed red blood cells and allograft (P = .079, P = .196, and P = .072, respectively). We therefore conclude that while burn patients who received allograft and blood demonstrated a higher incidence of anti-human leukocyte antigen sensitization relative to healthy controls, this difference cannot solely be attributed to either allograft use or transfusion.