Purification, characterization, and N-glycosylation of recombinant butyrylcholinesterase from transgenic rice cell suspension cultures.

Recombinant butyrylcholinesterase produced in a metabolically regulated transgenic rice cell culture (rrBChE) was purified to produce a highly pure (95%), active form of enzyme. The developed downstream process uses common manufacturing friendly operations including tangential flow filtration, anion-exchange chromatography, and affinity chromatography to obtain a process recovery of 42% active rrBChE. The purified rrBChE was then characterized to confirm its comparability to the native human form of the molecule (hBChE). The recombinant and native enzyme demonstrated comparable enzymatic behavior and had an identical amino acid sequence. However, rrBChE differs in that it contains plant-type complex N-glycans, including an α-1,3 linked core fucose, and a ß-1,2 xylose, and lacking a terminal sialic acid. Despite this difference, rrBChE is demonstrated to be an effective stoichiometric bioscavenger for five different organophosphorous nerve agents in vitro. Together, the efficient downstream processing scheme and functionality of rrBChE confirm its promise as a cost-effective alternative to hBChE for prophylactic and therapeutic use.

Evaluating mice lacking serum carboxylesterase as a behavioral model for nerve agent intoxication.

Mice and other rodents are typically utilized for chemical warfare nerve agent research. Rodents have large amounts of carboxylesterase in their blood, while humans do not. Carboxylesterase nonspecifically binds to and detoxifies nerve agent. The presence of this natural bioscavenger makes mice and other rodents poor models for studies identifying therapeutics to treat humans exposed to nerve agents. To obviate this problem, a serum carboxylesterase knockout (Es1 KO) mouse was created. In this study, Es1 KO and wild type (WT) mice were assessed for differences in gene expression, nerve agent (soman; GD) median lethal dose (MLD) values, and behavior prior to and following nerve agent exposure. No expression differences were detected between Es1 KO and WT mice in more than 34 000 mouse genes tested. There was a significant difference between Es1 KO and WT mice in MLD values, as the MLD for GD-exposed WT mice was significantly higher than the MLD for GD-exposed Es1 KO mice. Behavioral assessments of Es1 KO and WT mice included an open field test, a zero maze, a Barnes maze, and a sucrose preference test (SPT). While sex differences were observed in various measures of these tests, overall, Es1 KO mice behaved similarly to WT mice. The two genotypes also showed virtually identical neuropathological changes following GD exposure. Es1 KO mice appear to have an enhanced susceptibility to GD toxicity while retaining all other behavioral and physiological responses to this nerve agent, making the Es1 KO mouse a more human-like model for nerve agent research.

A rationally designed mutant of plasma platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase hydrolyzes the organophosphorus nerve agent soman.

Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) such as sarin and soman are some of the most toxic chemicals synthesized by man. They exert toxic effects by inactivating acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and bind secondary target protein. Organophosphorus compounds are hemi-substrates for enzymes of the serine hydrolase superfamily. Enzymes can be engineered by amino acid substitution into OP-hydrolyzing variants (bioscavengers) and used as therapeutics. Some enzymes associated with lipoproteins, such as human plasma platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (pPAF-AH), are also inhibited by OPs; these proteins have largely been ignored for engineering purposes because of complex interfacial kinetics and a lack of structural data. We have expressed active human pPAF-AH in bacteria and previously solved the crystal structure of this enzyme with OP adducts. Using these structures as a guide, we created histidine mutations near the active site of pPAF-AH (F322H, W298H, L153H) in an attempt to generate novel OP-hydrolase activity. Wild-type pPAF-AH, L153H, and F322H have essentially no hydrolytic activity against the nerve agents tested. In contrast, the W298H mutant displayed novel somanase activity with a kcat of 5min(-1) and a KM of 590µM at pH7.5. There was no selective preference for hydrolysis of any of the four soman stereoisomers.

An in vitro and in vivo evaluation of the efficacy of recombinant human liver prolidase as a catalytic bioscavenger of chemical warfare nerve agents.

In this study, we determined the ability of recombinant human liver prolidase to hydrolyze nerve agents in vitro and its ability to afford protection in vivo in mice. Using adenovirus containing the human liver prolidase gene, the enzyme was over expressed by 200- to 300-fold in mouse liver and purified to homogeneity by affinity and gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme hydrolyzed sarin, cyclosarin and soman with varying rates of hydrolysis. The most efficient hydrolysis was with sarin, followed by soman and by cyclosarin {apparent kcat/Km [(1.9 ± 0.3), (1.7 ± 0.2), and (0.45 ± 0.04)] × 10(5 )M(-1 )min(-1), respectively}; VX and tabun were not hydrolyzed by the recombinant enzyme. The enzyme hydrolyzed P (+) isomers faster than the P (-) isomers. The ability of recombinant human liver prolidase to afford 24 hour survival against a cumulative dose of 2 × LD50 of each nerve agent was investigated in mice. Compared to mice injected with a control virus, mice injected with the prolidase expressing virus contained (29 ± 7)-fold higher levels of the enzyme in their blood on day 5. Challenging these mice with two consecutive 1 × LD50 doses of sarin, cyclosarin, and soman resulted in the death of all animals within 5 to 8 min from nerve agent toxicity. In contrast, mice injected with the adenovirus expressing mouse butyrylcholinesterase, an enzyme which is known to afford protection in vivo, survived multiple 1 × LD50 challenges of these nerve agents and displayed no signs of toxicity. These results suggest that, while prolidase can hydrolyze certain G-type nerve agents in vitro, the enzyme does not offer 24 hour protection against a cumulative dose of 2 × LD50 of G-agents in mice in vivo.

Investigation of evolved paraoxonase-1 variants for prevention of organophosphorous pesticide compound intoxication.

We investigated the ability of the engineered paraoxonase-1 variants G3C9, VII-D11, I-F11, and VII-D2 to afford protection against paraoxon intoxication. Paraoxon is the toxic metabolite of parathion, a common pesticide still in use in many developing countries. An in vitro investigation showed that VII-D11 is the most efficient variant at hydrolyzing paraoxon with a kcat/Km of 2.1 × 10(6) M(-1) min(-1) and 1.6 × 10(6) M(-1) min(-1) for the enzyme expressed via adenovirus infection of 293A cells and mice, respectively. Compared with the G3C9 parent scaffold, VII-D11 is 15- to 20-fold more efficacious at hydrolyzing paraoxon. Coinciding with these results, mice expressing VII-D11 in their blood survived and showed no symptoms against a cumulative 6.3 × LD50 dose of paraoxon, whereas mice expressing G3C9 experienced tremors and only 50% survival. We then determined whether VII-D11 can offer protection against paraoxon when present at substoichiometric concentrations. Mice containing varying concentrations of VII-D11 in their blood (0.2-4.1 mg/ml) were challenged with doses of paraoxon at fixed stoichiometric ratios that constitute up to a 10-fold molar excess of paraoxon to enzyme (1.4-27 × LD50 doses) and were assessed for tremors and mortality. Mice were afforded complete asymptomatic protection below a paraoxon-to-enzyme ratio of 8:1, whereas higher ratios produced tremors and/or mortality. VII-D11 in mouse blood coeluted with high-density lipoprotein, suggesting an association between the two entities. Collectively, these results demonstrate that VII-D11 is a promising candidate for development as a prophylactic catalytic bioscavenger against organophosphorous pesticide toxicity.

Chiral separation of G-type chemical warfare nerve agents via analytical supercritical fluid chromatography.

Chemical warfare nerve agents (CWNAs) are extremely toxic organophosphorus compounds that contain a chiral phosphorus center. Undirected synthesis of G-type CWNAs produces stereoisomers of tabun, sarin, soman, and cyclosarin (GA, GB, GD, and GF, respectively). Analytical-scale methods were developed using a supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) system in tandem with a mass spectrometer for the separation, quantitation, and isolation of individual stereoisomers of GA, GB, GD, and GF. Screening various chiral stationary phases (CSPs) for the capacity to provide full baseline separation of the CWNAs revealed that a Regis WhelkO1 (SS) column was capable of separating the enantiomers of GA, GB, and GF, with elution of the P(+) enantiomer preceding elution of the corresponding P(-) enantiomer; two WhelkO1 (SS) columns had to be connected in series to achieve complete baseline resolution. The four diastereomers of GD were also resolved using two tandem WhelkO1 (SS) columns, with complete baseline separation of the two P(+) epimers. A single WhelkO1 (RR) column with inverse stereochemistry resulted in baseline separation of the GD P(-) epimers. The analytical methods described can be scaled to allow isolation of individual stereoisomers to assist in screening and development of countermeasures to organophosphorus nerve agents.

Plant-derived human butyrylcholinesterase, but not an organophosphorous-compound hydrolyzing variant thereof, protects rodents against nerve agents.

The concept of using cholinesterase bioscavengers for prophylaxis against organophosphorous nerve agents and pesticides has progressed from the bench to clinical trial. However, the supply of the native human proteins is either limited (e.g., plasma-derived butyrylcholinesterase and erythrocytic acetylcholinesterase) or nonexisting (synaptic acetylcholinesterase). Here we identify a unique form of recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase that mimics the native enzyme assembly into tetramers; this form provides extended effective pharmacokinetics that is significantly enhanced by polyethylene glycol conjugation. We further demonstrate that this enzyme (but not a G117H/E197Q organophosphorus acid anhydride hydrolase catalytic variant) can prevent morbidity and mortality associated with organophosphorous nerve agent and pesticide exposure of animal subjects of two model species.

Structure of recombinant human carboxylesterase 1 isolated from whole cabbage looper larvae.

The use of whole insect larvae as a source of recombinant proteins offers a more cost-effective method of producing large quantities of human proteins than conventional cell-culture approaches. Human carboxylesterase 1 has been produced in and isolated from whole Trichoplusia ni larvae. The recombinant protein was crystallized and its structure was solved to 2.2 resolution. The results indicate that the larvae-produced enzyme is essentially identical to that isolated from cultured Sf21 cells, supporting the use of this expression system to produce recombinant enzymes for crystallization studies.

Production of ES1 plasma carboxylesterase knockout mice for toxicity studies.

The LD(50) for soman is 10-20-fold higher for a mouse than a human. The difference in susceptibility is attributed to the presence of carboxylesterase in mouse but not in human plasma. Our goal was to make a mouse lacking plasma carboxylesterase. We used homologous recombination to inactivate the carboxylesterase ES1 gene on mouse chromosome 8 by deleting exon 5 and by introducing a frame shift for amino acids translated from exons 6 to 13. ES1-/- mice have no detectable carboxylesterase activity in plasma but have normal carboxylesterase activity in tissues. Homozygous ES1-/- mice and wild-type littermates were tested for response to a nerve agent model compound (soman coumarin) at 3 mg/kg sc. This dose intoxicated both genotypes but was lethal only to ES1-/- mice. This demonstrated that plasma carboxylesterase protects against a relatively high toxicity organophosphorus compound. The ES1-/- mouse should be an appropriate model for testing highly toxic nerve agents and for evaluating protection strategies against the toxicity of nerve agents.

Stereoselective hydrolysis of organophosphate nerve agents by the bacterial phosphotriesterase.

Organophosphorus compounds include many synthetic, neurotoxic substances that are commonly used as insecticides. The toxicity of these compounds is due to their ability to inhibit the enzyme acetylcholine esterase. Some of the most toxic organophosphates have been adapted for use as chemical warfare agents; the most well-known are GA, GB, GD, GF, VX, and VR. All of these compounds contain a chiral phosphorus center, with the S(P) enantiomers being significantly more toxic than the R(P) enantiomers. Phosphotriesterase (PTE) is an enzyme capable of detoxifying these agents, but the stereochemical preference of the wild-type enzyme is for the R(P) enantiomers. A series of enantiomerically pure chiral nerve agent analogues containing the relevant phosphoryl centers found in GB, GD, GF, VX, and VR has been developed. Wild-type and mutant forms of PTE have been tested for their ability to hydrolyze this series of compounds. Mutant forms of PTE with significantly enhanced, as well as relaxed or reversed, stereoselectivity have been identified. A number of variants exhibited dramatically improved kinetic constants for the catalytic hydrolysis of the more toxic S(P) enantiomers. Improvements of up to 3 orders of magnitude relative to the value of the wild-type enzyme were observed. Some of these mutants were tested against racemic mixtures of GB and GD. The kinetic constants obtained with the chiral nerve agent analogues accurately predict the improved activity and stereoselectivity against the authentic nerve agents used in this study.

Human carboxylesterase 1 stereoselectively binds the nerve agent cyclosarin and spontaneously hydrolyzes the nerve agent sarin.

Organophosphorus (OP) nerve agents are potent toxins that inhibit cholinesterases and produce a rapid and lethal cholinergic crisis. Development of protein-based therapeutics is being pursued with the goal of preventing nerve agent toxicity and protecting against the long-term side effects of these agents. The drug-metabolizing enzyme human carboxylesterase 1 (hCE1) is a candidate protein-based therapeutic because of its similarity in structure and function to the cholinesterase targets of nerve agent poisoning. However, the ability of wild-type hCE1 to process the G-type nerve agents sarin and cyclosarin has not been determined. We report the crystal structure of hCE1 in complex with the nerve agent cyclosarin. We further use stereoselective nerve agent analogs to establish that hCE1 exhibits a 1700- and 2900-fold preference for the P(R) enantiomers of analogs of soman and cyclosarin, respectively, and a 5-fold preference for the P(S) isomer of a sarin analog. Finally, we show that for enzyme inhibited by racemic mixtures of bona fide nerve agents, hCE1 spontaneously reactivates in the presence of sarin but not soman or cyclosarin. The addition of the neutral oxime 2,3-butanedione monoxime increases the rate of reactivation of hCE1 from sarin inhibition by more than 60-fold but has no effect on reactivation with the other agents examined. Taken together, these data demonstrate that hCE1 is only reactivated after inhibition with the more toxic P(S) isomer of sarin. These results provide important insights toward the long-term goal of designing novel forms of hCE1 to act as protein-based therapeutics for nerve agent detoxification.

Bisquaternary pyridinium oximes: Comparison of in vitro reactivation potency of compounds bearing aliphatic linkers and heteroaromatic linkers for paraoxon-inhibited electric eel and recombinant human acetylcholinesterase.

Oxime reactivators are the drugs of choice for the post-treatment of OP (organophosphorus) intoxication and used widely for mechanistic and kinetic studies of OP-inhibited cholinesterases. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate new oxime compounds to reactivate acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by the OP paraoxon. Several new bisquaternary pyridinium oximes with heterocyclic linkers along with some known bisquaternary pyridinium oximes bearing aliphatic linkers were synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro reactivation potency against paraoxon-inhibited electric eel acetylcholinesterase (EeAChE) and recombinant human acetylcholinesterase (rHuAChE). Results herein indicate that most of the compounds are better reactivators of EeAChE than of rHuAChE. The reactivation potency of two different classes of compounds with varying linker chains was compared and observed that the structure of the connecting chain is an important factor for the activity of the reactivators. At a higher concentration (10(-3)M), compounds bearing aliphatic linker showed better reactivation than compounds with heterocyclic linkers. Interestingly, oximes with a heterocyclic linker inhibited AChE at higher concentration (10(-3)M), whereas their ability to reactivate was increased at lower concentrations (10(-4)M and 10(-5)M). Compounds bearing either a thiophene linker 26, 46 or a furan linker 31 showed 59%, 49% and 52% reactivation of EeAChE, respectively, at 10(-5)M. These compounds showed 14%, 6% and 15% reactivation of rHuAChE at 10(-4)M. Amongst newly synthesized analogs with heterocyclic linkers (26-35 and 45-46), compound 31, bearing furan linker chain, was found to be the most effective reactivator with a k(r) 0.042min(-1), which is better than obidoxime (3) for paraoxon-inhibited EeAChE. Compound 31 showed a k(r) 0.0041min(-1) that is near equal to pralidoxime (1) for paraoxon-inhibited rHuAChE.

Engineering human PON1 in an E. coli expression system.

Expression and purification of recombinant human paraoxonase-1 (rHuPON1) from bacterial systems have proven elusive. Most systems for successful production of recombinant PON1 have relied on either eukaryotic expression in baculovirus or prokaryotic expression of synthetic, gene-shuffled rabbit-mouse-human PON1 hybrid molecules. We review here methods and protocols for the production of pure, native rHuPON1 using an E. coli expression system followed by conventional column chromatographic purification. The resulting rHuPON1 is stable, active, and capable of protecting PON1 knockout mice (PON1(-/-)) from exposure to high levels of the organophosphorus (OP) compound diazoxon. Bacterially-derived rHuPON1 can be produced in large quantities and lacks the glycosylation of eukaryotic systems that produces immunogenic complications when used as a therapeutic. The rHuPON1 should be useful for treating insecticide OP exposures and reducing risks of other diseases resulting from low PON1 status. The ease of mutagenesis in bacterial systems will also allow for the generation and screening of rHuPON1 variants with enhanced catalytic efficiencies against nerve agents and other OP compounds.

Butyrylcholinesterase, a stereospecific in vivo bioscavenger against nerve agent intoxication.

Human butyrylcholinesterase (E.C. 3.1.1.8) purified from blood plasma has previously been shown to provide protection against up to five and a half times the median lethal dose of an organophosphorus nerve agent in several animal models. In this study the stoichiometric nature of the protection afforded by human butyrylcholinesterase against organophosphorus nerve agents was investigated in guinea pigs. Animals were administered human butyrylcholinesterase (26.15 mg/kg ≡ 308 nmol/kg) by the intravascular or intramuscular route. Animals were subsequently dosed with either soman or VX in accordance with a stage-wise adaptive dose design to estimate the modified median lethal dose in treated animals. Human butyrylcholinesterase (308 nmol/kg) increased the median lethal dose of soman from 154 nmol/kg to 770 nmol/kg. Comparing the molar ratio of agent molecules to enzyme active sites yielded a stoichiometric protective ratio of 2:1 for soman, likely related to the similar stereoselectivity the enzyme has compared to the toxic target, acetylcholinesterase. In contrast, human butyrylcholinesterase (308 nmol/kg) increased the median lethal dose of VX from 30 nmol/kg to 312 nmol/kg, resulting in a stoichiometric protective ratio of only 1:1, suggesting a lack of stereoselectivity for this agent.

Crystal structures of brain group-VIII phospholipase A2 in nonaged complexes with the organophosphorus nerve agents soman and sarin.

Insecticide and nerve agent organophosphorus (OP) compounds are potent inhibitors of the serine hydrolase superfamily of enzymes. Nerve agents, such as sarin, soman, tabun, and VX exert their toxicity by inhibiting human acetycholinesterase at nerve synapses. Following the initial phosphonylation of the active site serine, the enzyme may reactivate spontaneously or through reaction with an appropriate nucleophilic oxime. Alternatively, the enzyme-nerve agent complex can undergo a secondary process, called "aging", which dealkylates the nerve agent adduct and results in a product that is highly resistant to reactivation by any known means. Here we report the structures of paraoxon, soman, and sarin complexes of group-VIII phospholipase A2 from bovine brain. In each case, the crystal structures indicate a nonaged adduct; a stereoselective preference for binding of the P(S)C(S) isomer of soman and the P(S) isomer of sarin was also noted. The stability of the nonaged complexes was corroborated by trypsin digest and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, which indicates nonaged complexes are formed with diisopropylfluorophosphate, soman, and sarin. The P(S) stereoselectivity for reaction with sarin was confirmed by reaction of racemic sarin, followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using a chiral column to separate and quantitate each stereoisomer. The P(S) stereoisomers of soman and sarin are known to be the more toxic stereoisomers, as they react preferentially to inhibit human acetylcholinesterase. The results obtained for nonaged complexes of group-VIII phospholipase A2 are compared to those obtained for other serine hydrolases and discussed to partly explain determinants of OP aging. Furthermore, structural insights can now be exploited to engineer variant versions of this enzyme with enhanced nerve agent binding and hydrolysis functions.

Dramatic differences in organophosphorus hydrolase activity between human and chimeric recombinant mammalian paraoxonase-1 enzymes.

Human serum paraoxonase-1 (HuPON1) has the capacity to hydrolyze aryl esters, lactones, oxidized phospholipids, and organophosphorus (OP) compounds. HuPON1 and bacterially expressed chimeric recombinant PON1s (G2E6 and G3C9) differ by multiple amino acids, none of which are in the putative enzyme active site. To address the importance of these amino acid differences, the abilities of HuPON1, G2E6, G3C9, and several variants to hydrolyze phenyl acetate, paraoxon, and V-type OP nerve agents were examined. HuPON1 and G2E6 have a 10-fold greater catalytic efficiency toward phenyl acetate than G3C9. In contrast, bacterial PON1s are better able to promote hydrolysis of paraoxon, whereas HuPON1 is considerably better at catalyzing the hydrolysis of nerve agents VX and VR. These studies demonstrate that mutations distant from the active site of PON1 have large and unpredictable effects on the substrate specificities and possibly the hydrolytic mechanisms of HuPON1, G2E6, and G3C9. The replacement of residue H115 in the putative active site with tryptophan (H115W) has highly disparate effects on HuPON1 and G2E6. In HuPON1, variant H115W loses the ability to hydrolyze VR but has improved activity toward paraoxon and VX. The H115W variant of G2E6 has paraoxonase activity similar to that of wild-type G2E6, modest activity with phenyl acetate and VR, and enhanced VX hydrolysis. VR inhibits H115W HuPON1 competitively when paraoxon is the substrate and noncompetitively when VX is the substrate. We have identified the first variant of HuPON1, H115W, that displays significantly enhanced catalytic activity against an authentic V-type nerve agent.

In silico analyses of substrate interactions with human serum paraoxonase 1.

Human paraoxonase (HuPON1) is a serum enzyme that exhibits a broad spectrum of hydrolytic activities, including the hydrolysis of various organophosphates, esters, and recently identified lactone substrates. Despite intensive site-directed mutagenesis and other biological studies, the structural basis for the specificity of substrate interactions of HuPON1 remains elusive. In this study, we apply homology modeling, docking, and molecular dynamic (MD) simulations to probe the binding interactions of HuPON1 with representative substrates. The results suggest that the active site of HuPON1 is characterized by two distinct binding regions: the hydrophobic binding site for arylesters/lactones, and the paraoxon binding site for phosphotriesters. The unique binding modes proposed for each type of substrate reveal a number of key residues governing substrate specificity. The polymorphic residue R/Q192 interacts with the leaving group of paraoxon, suggesting it plays an important role in the proper positioning of this substrate in the active site. MD simulations of the optimal binding complexes show that residue Y71 undergoes an "open-closed" conformational change upon ligand binding, and forms strong interactions with substrates. Further binding free energy calculations and residual decomposition give a more refined molecular view of the energetics and origin of HuPON1/substrate interactions. These studies provide a theoretical model of substrate binding and specificity associated with wild type and mutant forms of HuPON1, which can be applied in the rational design of HuPON1 variants as bioscavengers with enhanced catalytic activity.

DNA aptamers developed against a soman derivative cross-react with the methylphosphonic acid core but not with flanking hydrophobic groups.

Twelve rounds of systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) were conducted against a magnetic bead conjugate of the para-aminophenylpinacolylmethylphosphonate (PAPMP) derivative of the organophosphorus (OP) nerve agent soman (GD). The goal was to develop DNA aptamers that could scavenge GD in vivo, thereby reducing or eliminating the toxic effects of this dangerous compound. Aptamers were sequenced and screened in peroxidase-based colorimetric plate assays after rounds 8 and 12 of SELEX. The aptamer candidate sequences exhibiting the highest affinity for the GD derivative from round 8 also reappeared in several clones from round 12. Each of the highest affinity PAPMP-binding aptamers also bound methylphosphonic acid (MPA). In addition, the aptamer with the highest overall affinity for PAPMP carried a sequence motif (TTTAGT) thought to bind MPA based on previously published data (J. Fluoresc 18: 867-876, 2008). This sequence motif was found in several other relatively high affinity PAPMP aptamer candidates as well. In studies with the nerve agent GD, pre-incubation of a large molar excess of aptamer candidates failed to protect human butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) from inhibition. With the aid of three-dimensional molecular modeling of the GD derivative it appears that a hydrophilic cleft sandwiched between the pinacolyl group and the p-aminophenyl ring might channel nucleotide interactions to the phosphonate portion of the immobilized GD derivative. However, bona fide GD free in solution may be repulsed by the negative phosphate backbone of aptamers and rotate its phosphonate and fluorine moieties away from the aptamer to avoid being bound. Future attempts to develop aptamers to GD might benefit from immobilizing the pinacolyl group of bona fide GD to enhance exposure of the phosphonate and fluorine to the random DNA library.

New series of monoquaternary pyridinium oximes: Synthesis and reactivation potency for paraoxon-inhibited electric eel and recombinant human acetylcholinesterase.

The preparation of a series of monoquaternary pyridinium oximes bearing either a heterocyclic side chain or a functionalized aliphatic side chain and the corresponding in vitro evaluation for reactivation of paraoxon-inhibited electric eel acetylcholinesterase (EeAChE) and recombinant human acetylcholinesterase (rHuAChE) are reported. Several newly synthesized compounds efficiently reactivated inhibited EeAChE, but were poor reactivators of inhibited rHuAChE. Compounds bearing a thiophene ring in the side chain (20, 23, 26 and 29) showed better reactivation (24-37% for EeAChE and 5-9% for rHuAChE) compared to compounds with furan and isoxazole heterocycles (0-8% for EeAChE and 2-3% for rHuAChE) at 10(-5)M. The N-pyridyl-CH(2)COOH analog 8 reactivated EeAChE (36%) and rHuAChE (15%) at 10(-4)M with a k(r) value better than 2-pyridine aldoxime methiodide (2-PAM) for rHuAChE.

Adeno-associated virus-mediated expression of human butyrylcholinesterase to treat organophosphate poisoning.

Rare diseases defined by genetic mutations are classic targets for gene therapy. More recently, researchers expanded the use of gene therapy in non-clinical studies to infectious diseases through the delivery of vectorized antibodies to well-defined antigens. Here, we further extend the utility of gene therapy beyond the "accepted" indications to include organophosphate poisoning. There are no approved preventives for the multi-organ damage resulting from acute or chronic exposure to organophosphates. We show that a single intramuscular injection of adeno-associated virus vector produces peak expression (~0.5 mg/ml) of active human butyrylcholinesterase (hBChE) in mice serum within 3-4 weeks post-treatment. This expression is sustained for up to 140 days post-injection with no silencing. Sustained expression of hBChE provided dose-dependent protection against VX in male and female mice despite detectable antibodies to hBChE in some mice, thereby demonstrating that expression of hBChE in vivo in mouse muscle is an effective prophylactic against organophosphate poisoning.