The cellular adaptor GULP1 interacts with ATG14 to potentiate autophagy and APP processing.

Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic mechanism by which unnecessary or dysfunctional cellular components are removed. The dysregulation of autophagy has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Understanding the molecular mechanism(s)/molecules that influence autophagy may provide important insights into developing therapeutic strategies against AD and other neurodegenerative disorders. Engulfment adaptor phosphotyrosine-binding domain-containing protein 1 (GULP1) is an adaptor that interacts with amyloid precursor protein (APP) to promote amyloid-ß peptide production via an unidentified mechanism. Emerging evidence suggests that GULP1 has a role in autophagy. Here, we show that GULP1 is involved in autophagy through an interaction with autophagy-related 14 (ATG14), which is a regulator of autophagosome formation. GULP1 potentiated the stimulatory effect of ATG14 on autophagy by modulating class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complex 1 (PI3KC3-C1) activity. The effect of GULP1 is attenuated by a GULP1 mutation (GULP1m) that disrupts the GULP1-ATG14 interaction. Conversely, PI3KC3-C1 activity is enhanced in cells expressing APP but not in those expressing an APP mutant that does not bind GULP1, which suggests a role of GULP1-APP in regulating PI3KC3-C1 activity. Notably, GULP1 facilitates the targeting of ATG14 to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Moreover, the levels of both ATG14 and APP are elevated in the autophagic vacuoles (AVs) of cells expressing GULP1, but not in those expressing GULP1m. APP processing is markedly enhanced in cells co-expressing GULP1 and ATG14. Hence, GULP1 alters APP processing by promoting the entry of APP into AVs. In summary, we unveil a novel role of GULP1 in enhancing the targeting of ATG14 to the ER to stimulate autophagy and, consequently, APP processing.

Insulin stimulates atypical protein kinase C-mediated phosphorylation of the neuronal adaptor FE65 to potentiate neurite outgrowth by activating ARF6-Rac1 signaling.

Neurite outgrowth is a fundamental process in neurons that produces extensions and, consequently, neural connectivity. Neurite damage and atrophy are observed in various brain injuries and disorders. Understanding the intrinsic pathways of neurite outgrowth is essential for developing strategies to stimulate neurite regeneration. Insulin is a pivotal hormone in the regulation of glucose homeostasis. There is increasing evidence for the neurotrophic functions of insulin, including the induction of neurite outgrowth. However, the associated mechanism remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that insulin potentiates neurite outgrowth mediated by the small GTPases ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) and Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) through the neuronal adaptor FE65. Moreover, insulin enhances atypical protein kinase Cι/λ (PKCι/λ) activation and FE65 phosphorylation at serine 459 (S459) in neurons and mouse brains. In vitro and cellular assays show that PKCι/λ phosphorylated FE65 at S459. Consistently, insulin potentiates FE65 S459 phosphorylation only in the presence of PKCι/λ. Phosphomimetic studies show that an FE65 S459E mutant potently activates ARF6, Rac1, and neurite outgrowth. Notably, this phosphomimetic mutation enhances the FE65-ARF6 interaction, a process that promotes ARF6-Rac1-mediated neurite outgrowth. Likewise, insulin treatment and PKCι/λ overexpression potentiate the FE65-ARF6 interaction. Conversely, PKCι/λ knockdown suppresses the stimulatory effect of FE65 on ARF6-Rac1-mediated neurite outgrowth. The effect of insulin on neurite outgrowth is also markedly attenuated in PKCι/λ knockdown neurons, in the presence and absence of FE65. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism linking insulin with ARF6-Rac1-dependent neurite extension through the PKCι/λ-mediated phosphorylation of FE65.

ARF6-Rac1 signaling-mediated neurite outgrowth is potentiated by the neuronal adaptor FE65 through orchestrating ARF6 and ELMO1.

Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) is a member of the Rho family of GTPases that functions as a molecular switch to regulate many important cellular events including actin cytoskeleton remodeling during neurite outgrowth. Engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1)-dedicator of cytokinesis 1 (DOCK180) is a bipartite guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) complex that has been reported to activate Rac1 on the plasma membrane (PM). Emerging evidence suggests that the small GTPase ADP ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) activates Rac1 via the ELMO1/DOCK180 complex. However, the exact mechanism by which ARF6 triggers ELMO1/DOCK180-mediated Rac1 signaling remains unclear. Here, we report that the neuronal scaffold protein FE65 serves as a functional link between ARF6 and ELMO1, allowing the formation of a multimeric signaling complex. Interfering with formation of this complex by transfecting either FE65-binding-defective mutants or FE65 siRNA attenuates both ARF6-ELMO1-mediated Rac1 activation and neurite elongation. Notably, the PM trafficking of ELMO1 is markedly decreased in cells with suppressed expression of either FE65 or ARF6. Likewise, this process is attenuated in the FE65-binding-defective mutants transfected cells. Moreover, overexpression of FE65 increases the amount of ELMO1 in the recycling endosome, an organelle responsible for returning proteins to the PM, whereas knockout of FE65 shows opposite effect. Together, our data indicates that FE65 potentiates ARF6-Rac1 signaling by orchestrating ARF6 and ELMO1 to promote the PM trafficking of ELMO1 via the endosomal recycling pathway, and thus, promotes Rac1-mediated neurite outgrowth.

Neuronal adaptor FE65 stimulates Rac1-mediated neurite outgrowth by recruiting and activating ELMO1.

Neurite outgrowth is a crucial process in developing neurons for neural network formation. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of neurite outgrowth is essential for developing strategies to stimulate neurite regeneration after nerve injury and in neurodegenerative disorders. FE65 is a brain-enriched adaptor that stimulates Rac1-mediated neurite elongation. However, the precise mechanism by which FE65 promotes the process remains elusive. Here, we show that ELMO1, a subunit of ELMO1-DOCK180 bipartite Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), interacts with the FE65 N-terminal region. Overexpression of FE65 and/or ELMO1 enhances, whereas knockdown of FE65 or ELMO1 inhibits, neurite outgrowth and Rac1 activation. The effect of FE65 alone or together with ELMO1 is attenuated by an FE65 double mutation that disrupts FE65-ELMO1 interaction. Notably, FE65 is found to activate ELMO1 by diminishing ELMO1 intramolecular autoinhibitory interaction and to promote the targeting of ELMO1 to the plasma membrane, where Rac1 is activated. We also show that FE65, ELMO1, and DOCK180 form a tripartite complex. Knockdown of DOCK180 reduces the stimulatory effect of FE65-ELMO1 on Rac1 activation and neurite outgrowth. Thus, we identify a novel mechanism by which FE65 stimulates Rac1-mediated neurite outgrowth by recruiting and activating ELMO1.

ARNO is recruited by the neuronal adaptor FE65 to potentiate ARF6-mediated neurite outgrowth.

ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) is a small GTPase that has a variety of neuronal functions including stimulating neurite outgrowth, a crucial process for the establishment and maintenance of neural connectivity. As impaired and atrophic neurites are often observed in various brain injuries and neurological diseases, understanding the intrinsic pathways that stimulate neurite outgrowth may provide insights into developing strategies to trigger the reconnection of injured neurons. The neuronal adaptor FE65 has been shown to interact with ARF6 and potentiate ARF6-mediated neurite outgrowth. However, the precise mechanism that FE65 activates ARF6 remains unclear, as FE65 does not possess a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domain/function. Here, we show that FE65 interacts with the ARF6 GEF, namely the ARF nucleotide-binding site opener (ARNO). Moreover, a complex consisting of ARNO, ARF6 and FE65 is detected. Notably, FE65 potentiates the stimulatory effect of ARNO on ARF6-mediated neurite outgrowth, and the effect of FE65 is abrogated by an FE65 mutation that disrupts FE65-ARNO interaction. Additionally, the intramolecular interaction for mediating the autoinhibited conformation of ARNO is attenuated by FE65. Moreover, FE65 potentiates the effects of wild-type ARNO, but not the monomeric mutant, suggesting an association between FE65 and ARNO dimerization. Collectively, we demonstrate that FE65 binds to and activates ARNO and, consequently, potentiates ARF6-mediated neurite outgrowth.

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation for Investigating Endocytic Recycling in Mammalian Cells.

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process that regulates a broad range of biological events. Proteins are internalized from the plasma membrane and then transported to the early endosomes. The internalized proteins could be transited to the lysosome for degradation or recycled back to the plasma membrane. A robust endocytic recycling pathway is required to balance the removal of membrane materials from endocytosis. Various proteins are reported to regulate the pathway, including ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6). Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a classical method for cell fractionation. After the centrifugation, organelles are sedimented at their isopycnic surface. The fractions are collected and used for other downstream applications. Described here is a protocol to obtain a recycling endosome-containing fraction from transfected mammalian cells using density gradient ultracentrifugation. The isolated fractions were subjected to standard Western blotting for analyzing their protein contents. By employing this method, we identified that the plasma membrane targeting of engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1), a Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) guanine nucleotide exchange factor, is through ARF6-mediated endocytic recycling.

An Enhanced Green Fluorescence Protein-based Assay for Studying Neurite Outgrowth in Primary Neurons.

Neurite outgrowth is a fundamental event in the formation of the neural circuits during nervous system development. Severe neurite damage and synaptic dysfunction occur in various neurodegenerative diseases and age-related degeneration. Investigation of the mechanisms that regulate neurite outgrowth would not only shed valuable light on brain developmental processes but also on such neurological disorders. Due to the low transfection efficiency, it is currently challenging to study the effect of a specific protein on neurite outgrowth in primary mammalian neurons. Here, we describe a simple method for the investigation of neurite outgrowth by the co-transfection of primary rat cortical neurons with EGFP and a protein of interest (POI). This method allows the identification of POI transfected neurons through the EGFP signal, and thus the effect of the POI on neurite outgrowth can be determined precisely. This EGFP-based assay provides a convenient approach for the investigation of pathways regulating neurite outgrowth.

Proximity Ligation Assay for the Investigation of the Intramolecular Interaction of ELMO1.

Intramolecular interaction is a common mechanism that regulates protein activities. Conventionally, such interactions are investigated by classical in vitro biochemical assays. Here, we describe a protocol for studying the intramolecular interaction of cell motility and engulfment 1 (ELMO1) in mammalian cells by using proximity ligation assay (PLA). PLA is a specific and sensitive method that allows the observation of interacting proteins by target-specific antibody detection coupled to rolling circle amplification. ELMO1 is the regulatory subunit of ELMO1-dedicator of cytokinesis 180 (DOCK180) bipartite Rac1 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) which adopts a closed autoinhibitory conformation via an intramolecular interaction of its N-terminal ELMO inhibitory domain (EID) and C-terminal ELMO autoregulatory domain (EAD). In the assay, PLA signals are detected in cells transfected with ELMO11-315 and ELMO1315-727 fragments. Moreover, overexpression of FE65, a neuronal adaptor which has been shown to disrupt ELMO1 intramolecular interaction, reduces the PLA signals of the two ELMO1 fragments significantly. Together, our results demonstrate that PLA can be employed for studying protein intramolecular interaction.