Trivalent chromium induces autophagy by activating sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 2 and increasing cellular ceramide levels in renal HK2 cells.

In this study, we examined the role of autophagy in the initiation of lipid increases in renal epithelial HK2 cells. We found that trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] induced autophagy by activating sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 2 (SMPD2). SMPD2 increases levels of ceramide and other lipids. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy showed that signals of ceramide overlapped with LC3, suggesting that ceramide might play an important role in the formation of autophagosome. In conclusion, our data indicate that Cr(III) induces autophagy via structural aberration of organelle membrane, in particular by the increase of lipid compositions in addition to autophagy-associated proteins.

Association of anticardiolipin, antiphosphatidylserine, anti-ß2 glycoprotein I, and antiphosphatidylcholine autoantibodies with canine immune thrombocytopenia.

BACKGROUND: In humans, the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) is frequently found in immune thrombocytopenia. The present study investigated whether aPL and any aPL subtypes are associated with canine thrombocytopenia, in particular, immune-mediated thrombocytopenia (immune thrombocytopenia) that usually manifests with severe thrombocytopenia. RESULTS: Sera were collected from 64 outpatient dogs with thrombocytopenia (Group I, platelet count 0 - 80 × 10(3)/uL), and 38 of which having severe thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 30 × 10(3)/uL) were further divided into subgroups based on the presence of positive antiplatelet antibodies (aPLT) (subgroup IA, immune thrombocytopenia, n =20) or the absence of aPLT (subgroup IB, severe thrombocytopenia negative for aPLT, n =18). In addition, sera of 30 outpatient dogs without thrombocytopenia (Group II), and 80 healthy dogs (Group III) were analyzed for comparison. Indirect ELISAs were performed to compare serum levels of aPL subtypes, including anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL), antiphosphatidylserine antibodies (aPS), antiphosphatidylcholine (aPC), and anti-ß2 glycoprotein I antibodies (aß2GPI), and antiphosphatidylinositol antibodies (aPI), among different groups or subgroups of dogs. Among outpatient dogs, aCL, being highly prevalent in outpatient dogs with thrombocytopenia (63/64, 98 %), is an important risk factor for thrombocytopenia (with a high relative risk of 8.3), immune thrombocytopenia (relative risk 5.3), or severe thrombocytopenia negative for aPLT (relative risk ∞, odds ratio 19). In addition, aPS is a risk factor for immune thrombocytopenia or severe thrombocytopenia negative for aPLT (moderate relative risks around 2), whereas aPC and aß2GPI are risk factors for immune thrombocytopenia (relative risks around 2). CONCLUSIONS: Of all the aPL subtypes tested here, aCL is highly associated with canine thrombocytopenia, including immune thrombocytopenia, severe thrombocytopenia negative for aPLT, and less severe thrombocytopenia. Furthermore, aPS is moderately associated with both canine immune thrombocytopenia and severe thrombocytopenia negative for aPLT, whereas aß2GPI, and aPC are moderately relevant to canine immune thrombocytopenia. In contrast, aPI is not significantly associated with canine immune thrombocytopenia.

Downregulated CXCL12 expression in mesenchymal stem cells associated with severe aplastic anemia in children.

The mechanisms of idiopathic severe aplastic anemia (SAA) in children are not completely understood. Insufficiency of the bone marrow microenvironment, in which mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are an important element, can be a potential factor associated with hematopoietic impairment. In the current study, we studied whether aberrant gene expression could be found in MSCs from children with SAA. Using microarray analysis, two different patterns of global gene expression were detected in the SAA MSCs. Fourteen genes (POLE2, HGF, KIF20A, TK1, IL18R1, KITLG, FGF18, RRM2, TTK, CXCL12, DLG7, TOP2A, NUF2, and TYMS), which are related to DNA synthesis, cytokines, or growth factors, were significantly downregulated. Further, knockdown of gene expression was performed using the small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-containing lentivirus method. We found that knockdown of CXCL12, HGF, IL-18R1, FGF18, or RRM2 expression compelled MSCs from the controls to behave like those from the SAA children, with decreased survival and differentiation potential. Among them, inhibition of CXCL12 gene expression had the most profound effects on the behavior of MSCs. Further experiments regarding re-introduction of the CXCL12 gene could largely recover the survival and differentiation potential in MSCs with inhibition of CXCL12 expression. Our findings suggest that MSCs from children with SAA exhibit aberrant gene expression profiles and downregulation of CXCL12 gene may be associated with alterations in the bone marrow microenvironment.

Antimicrobial Peptide Mastoparan-AF Kills Multi-Antibiotic Resistant Escherichia coli O157:H7 via Multiple Membrane Disruption Patterns and Likely by Adopting 3-11 Amphipathic Helices to Favor Membrane Interaction.

We investigated the antimicrobial activity and membrane disruption modes of the antimicrobial peptide mastoparan-AF against hemolytic Escherichia coli O157:H7. Based on the physicochemical properties, mastoparan-AF may potentially adopt a 3-11 amphipathic helix-type structure, with five to seven nonpolar or hydrophobic amino acid residues forming the hydrophobic face. E. coli O157:H7 and two diarrheagenic E. coli veterinary clinical isolates, which are highly resistant to multiple antibiotics, are sensitive to mastoparan-AF, with minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations (MIC and MBC) ranging from 16 to 32 µg mL-1 for E. coli O157:H7 and four to eight µg mL-1 for the latter two isolates. Mastoparan-AF treatment, which correlates proportionally with membrane permeabilization of the bacteria, may lead to abnormal dents, large perforations or full opening at apical ends (hollow tubes), vesicle budding, and membrane corrugation and invagination forming irregular pits or pores on E. coli O157:H7 surface. In addition, mRNAs of prepromastoparan-AF and prepromastoparan-B share a 5'-poly(A) leader sequence at the 5'-UTR known for the advantage in cap-independent translation. This is the first report about the 3-11 amphipathic helix structure of mastoparans to facilitate membrane interaction. Mastoparan-AF could potentially be employed to combat multiple antibiotic-resistant hemolytic E. coli O157:H7 and other pathogenic E. coli.

ATPase family AAA domain-containing 3A is a novel anti-apoptotic factor in lung adenocarcinoma cells.

AAA domain-containing 3A (ATAD3A) is a member of the AAA-ATPase family. Three forms of ATAD3 have been identified: ATAD3A, ATAD3B and ATAD3C. In this study, we examined the type and expression of ATAD3 in lung adenocarcinoma (LADC). Expression of ATAD3A was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry and confocal immunofluorescent microscopy. Our results show that ATAD3A is the major form expressed in LADC. Silencing of ATAD3A expression increased mitochondrial fragmentation and cisplatin sensitivity. Serum deprivation increased ATAD3A expression and drug resistance. These results suggest that ATAD3A could be an anti-apoptotic marker in LADC.

Bio-Membrane Internalization Mechanisms of Arginine-Rich Cell-Penetrating Peptides in Various Species.

Recently, membrane-active peptides or proteins that include antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), cytolytic proteins, and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have attracted attention due to their potential applications in the biomedical field. Among them, CPPs have been regarded as a potent drug/molecules delivery system. Various cargoes, such as DNAs, RNAs, bioactive proteins/peptides, nanoparticles and drugs, can be carried by CPPs and delivered into cells in either covalent or noncovalent manners. Here, we focused on four arginine-rich CPPs and reviewed the mechanisms that these CPPs used for intracellular uptake across cellular plasma membranes. The varying transduction efficiencies of them alone or with cargoes were discussed, and the membrane permeability was also expounded for CPP/cargoes delivery in various species. Direct membrane translocation (penetration) and endocytosis are two principal mechanisms for arginine-rich CPPs mediated cargo delivery. Furthermore, the amino acid sequence is the primary key factor that determines the cellular internalization mechanism. Importantly, the non-cytotoxic nature and the wide applicability make CPPs a trending tool for cellular delivery.

Sumoylation of eukaryotic elongation factor 2 is vital for protein stability and anti-apoptotic activity in lung adenocarcinoma cells.

By screening mouse monoclonal antibody libraries for Kelch repeats, we serendipitously identified monoclonal antibodies to eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2). Interestingly, eEF2 was highly expressed in lung adenocarcinoma (LADC), but not in the neighboring non-tumor lung tissue. Normally, eEF2 is involved in the peptidyl-tRNA translocation during protein synthesis. Overexpression of eEF2 would implicate an association with disease progression of LADC. In the present study, we investigated the prognostic significance of eEF2 in patients with LADC. Expression of eEF2 was detected by immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. Our results show that patients with high eEF2 expression had a significantly higher incidence of early tumor recurrence (67.8%vs 18.2%, P = 0.016), and a significantly worse prognosis (P < 0.001). In an in vitro study, silencing of eEF2 expression increased mitochondrial elongation, cellular autophagy and cisplatin sensitivity. Moreover, eEF2 was sumoylated in LADC cells, and eEF2 sumoylation correlated with drug resistance. These results suggest that eEF2 is an anti-apoptotic marker in LADC. However, biological function and involvement of eEF2 in the disease progression of LADC require further studies.

Lactoferricin-Derived L5a Cell-Penetrating Peptide for Delivery of DNA into Cells.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are small peptides which help intracellular delivery of functional macromolecules, including DNAs, RNAs, and proteins, across the cell membrane and into the cytosol, and even into the nucleus in some cases. Delivery of macromolecules can facilitate transfection, aid in gene therapy and transgenesis, and alter gene expression. L5a (RRWQW), originally derived from bovine lactoferricin, is one kind of CPPs which can promote cellular uptake of plasmid DNA and enters cells via direct membrane translocation. The peptide complexes noncovalently with DNA over a short incubation period. DNA plasmid and L5a complex stability is confirmed by a decrease in mobility in a gel retardation assay, and successful transfection is proven by the detection of a reporter gene in cells using fluorescent microscopy. Here, we describe methods to study noncovalent interactions between L5a and plasmid DNA, and the delivery of L5a/DNA complexes into cells. L5a is the one of the smallest CPPs discovered to date, providing a small delivery vehicle for macromolecules in mammalian cells. A small vehicle which can enter the nucleus is ideal for efficient gene uptake, transfer, and therapy. It is simple to complex with DNA plasmids, and its nature allows mammalian cells to be easily transfected.

Overexpression of aldo-keto reductase 1C2 is associated with disease progression in patients with prostatic cancer.

AIMS: Prostatic cancer is resistant to chemotherapy. Expression of aldo-keto reductase 1C (AKR1C) has been associated with drug resistance and disease progression in several cancers. The aim was to investigate the relationship between AKR1C expression and disease progression in prostatic cancer. METHODS AND RESULTS: From January 1996 to December 2005, 86 pathological samples were collected from patients with prostatic cancer. A tissue microarray containing 31 prostatic cancers from American patients was used for comparison between Chinese and American patients. Using immunohistochemistry, aldo-keto reductase family 1, member C2 (AKR1C2) expression was assessed in tissue sections. The AKR1C2 was determined by two-dimensional immunoblotting and DNA sequencing of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction products. The relationship between AKR1C2 expression and clinicopathological variables was statistically analysed. In vitro, the association between AKR1C2 expression and drug resistance was investigated in androgen-sensitive and androgen-insensitive prostatic cancer cells. DNA sequencing and two-dimensional immunoblotting showed that prostatic cancer expressed AKR1C2. It was overexpressed in 77 of 86 (89.5%) Chinese and in 28 of 31 (90.3%) American samples. No difference was found in AKR1C2 expression between Chinese and American prostatic cancer patients. In vitro, increased expression of AKR1C2 and prostaglandin F2α correlated with cytoprotection against anticancer drugs and lycopene. CONCLUSION: Overexpression of AKR1C2 is associated with disease progression in prostatic cancer.

Suppurative meningitis in a 7-day-old Formosan sambar deer (Cervus unicolor swinhoei) caused by Escherichia coli.

This article describes the clinical and pathological features of an orphan 7-day-old, male Formosan sambar fawn that was hospitalized for treatment of weakness. The fawn had been deprived of colostrum and developed suppurative meningitis that was attributed to Escherichia coli.

Polyhistidine facilitates direct membrane translocation of cell-penetrating peptides into cells.

The bovine lactoferricin L6 (RRWQWR) has been previously identified as a novel cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) that is able to efficiently internalize into human cells. L6 interacts with quantum dots (QDs) noncovalently to generate stable L6/QD complexes that enter cells by endocytosis. In this study, we demonstrate a modified L6 (HL6; CHHHHHRRWQWRHHHHHC), in which short polyhistidine peptides are introduced into both flanks of L6, has enhanced cell-penetrating ability in human bronchoalveolar carcinoma A549 cells. The mechanism of cellular uptake of HL6/QD complexes is primarily direct membrane translocation rather than endocytosis. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), but not pyrenebutyrate (PB), ethanol, oleic acid, or 1,2-benzisothiazol-3(2 H)-one (BIT), slightly enhances HL6-mediated protein transduction efficiency. Neither HL6 nor HL6/QD complexes are cytotoxic to A549 or HeLa cells. These results indicate that HL6 could be a more efficient drug carrier than L6 for biomedical as well as biotechnological applications, and that the function of polyhistidine peptides is critical to CPP-mediated protein transduction.

HGF increases cisplatin resistance via down-regulation of AIF in lung cancer cells.

Our previous study had shown that advanced stages of lung adenocarcinomas (ADC) was frequently associated with overexpression of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which has multipotent and anti-apoptotic activities. In this study, we examined the effect of HGF on gene expression of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and cisplatin sensitivity in lung ADC cells. Expression of AIF was determined by immunocytochemistry and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. Our data show that addition of HGF suppressed AIF expression and increased cisplatin resistance. The effect could be through HGF receptor and its downstream effector, focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Interestingly, knockout of FAK gene increased AIF expression and drug sensitivity. Re-introduction of FAK gene, on the other hand, restored drug resistance. These results suggested that HGF might induce cisplatin resistance via c-Met to activate FAK and down-regulate AIF expression.

Expression of rTSbeta as a 5-fluorouracil resistance marker in patients with primary breast cancer.

Expression of thymidylate synthase (TS) in tumor cells is frequently suggested as an important prognostic factor for patients scheduled for chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). However, clinical evidence does not fully support such an anticipation. We studied the expression of rTSbeta, a reverse orientation gene of TS, as a 5-FU resistance marker in patients with primary breast cancer. Expression of rTSbeta was examined in 129 patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer and five breast cancer cell lines by immunohistochemistry, immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting. Clinically, expression of rTSbeta was found to correlate with survival of the patients (p=0.023) when patients received chemotherapeutic regimen containing 5-FU. In vitro, rTSbeta expression was found to correlate with 5-FU resistance in breast cancer cell lines. Notably, in the 5-FU-resistant cells, rTSbeta was identified in the nucleus, whereas in the 5-FU-sensitive cells, rTSbeta was found in the cytoplasm. Nuclear localization of rTSbeta was further found to be associated with protein farnesylation. Therefore, nuclear expression of rTSbeta could be a novel 5-FU resistance marker in patients with primary breast cancer.

A missense polymorphism in porcine interferon-gamma cDNA affects antiviral activity of the protein variant.

We determined the interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) cDNA sequence from three porcine breeds, Duroc, Landrance/Duroc hybrid, and Landrance breeds. Five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of porcine IFN-gamma (PoIFN-gamma) were identified, respectively, at positions 269 (A/G), 376 (C/T), 426 (T/C), and 465 (T/C) of the coding sequence in Landrance/Duroc hybrid, and at position 251 (A/G) in Landrance breed. Among them, A269G and A251G polymorphisms resulted in Q67R and K61R replacements in the mature protein. PoIFN-gamma cDNAs of Duroc breed (PoIFN-gamma-W) and Landrance/Duroc hybrid (PoIFN-gamma-M), which, respectively, encoded Q67 and R67, were introduced into a prokaryotic expression vector pET32 to express recombinant PoIFN-gamma-W (rPoIFN-gamma-W) and rPoIFN-gamma-M protein variants in Escherichia coli. The identity of both protein variants was further confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). We then compared bioactivities of these two recombinant proteins. Although both recombinant protein variants exhibited comparable activities in antiproliferation of PK-15 cells and in nitric oxide (NO) induction of porcine peripheral monocytes, antiviral activity of rPoIFN-gamma-W protein was significantly higher (P<0.001) than that of rPoIFN-gamma-M protein in a plaque inhibition assay using pseudorabies virus (PRV). IC50 values of rPoIFN-gamma-W and rPoIFN-gamma-M protein in anti-PRV assay were determined as 5.3+/-1.3 and 9.3+/-4.3nM, respectively. In conclusion, we have identified five novel SNPs in PoIFN-gamma cDNA, including two missense polymorphisms that result in Q67R and K61R replacements. Our results further demonstrate that Q67R can markedly reduce antiviral activity of the PoIFN-gamma protein. This is the first report that shows the functional SNP in the coding region of IFN-gamma. In the future, it is imperative to determine whether Q67R replacement in IFN-gamma may have disease association.

The role of HGF-MET pathway and CCDC66 cirRNA expression in EGFR resistance and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition of lung adenocarcinoma cells.

BACKGROUND: Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has, in recent years, emerged as an important tumor cell behavior associated with high metastatic potential and drug resistance. Interestingly, protein SUMOylation and hepatocyte growth factor could respectively reduce the effect of small molecule inhibitors on tyrosine kinase activity of mutated epidermal growth factor receptor of lung adenocarcinomas (LADC). The actual mechanism is yet to be resolved. METHODS: Immunohistochemistry was used to stain proteins in LADC specimens. Protein expression was confirmed by Western blotting. In vitro, expression of proteins was determined by Western blotting and immunocytochemistry. Levels of circular RNA were determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: SAE2 and cirRNA CCDC66 were highly expressed in LADC. Expression of SAE2 was mainly regulated by EGFR; however, expression of cirRNA CCDC66 was positively regulated by FAK and c-Met but negatively modulated by nAchR7α. EGFR-resistant H1975 also highly expressed cirRNA CCDC66. Immediate response of hypoxia increased phosphorylated c-Met, SAE2, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. Either activation of FAK or silencing of nAchR7α increased cirRNA CCDC66. CONCLUSIONS: HGF/c-Met regulates expression of SAE2 and cirRNA CCDC66 to increase EMT and drug resistance of LADC cells. Multimodality drugs concurrently aiming at these targets would probably provide more benefits for cancer patients.

Genetic polymorphism and gene expression of microsomal epoxide hydrolase in non-small cell lung cancer.

Genetic polymorphisms of microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH) have been associated with increased risk of lung cancer. However, expression of mEH and its clinical significance in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) have not been investigated. In this study we investigated the expression and genetic polymorphism of mEH in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Genetic polymorphism was determined by restriction fragment length polymorphism of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products. The allelic expression pattern as well as expression level of mEH were determined by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), cDNA sequencing, sequence alignment, immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Genotype distributions of mEH in Taiwan's NSCLC patients were 44.4% of 340TAC/340TAC, 48.6% of 340TAC/340CAC, and 7.0% of 340CAC/340CAC in exon 3, and 80.6% of 418CAT/418CAT, 19.4% of 418CAT/418CGT and 0% of 418CGT/418CGT in exon 4. Of the 72 NSCLC biopsies analyzed, mEH was expressed in 60 (83%) surgical specimens, and the major allelic expression pattern was fast type (Tyr113) in exon 3 (90.3%) and slow type (His139) in exon 4 (100%). Immunohistochemical staining showed that mEH was expressed in 326 of 423 (77.0%) tumor (lung tissue) specimens and in 48 of 93 (51.6%) metastatic lymph nodes. A significant difference in patient survival was found when mEH expression and adriamycin-containing chemotherapy were used to group patients (p=0.0167). In conclusion, with the combination of fast type (Tyr113) and slow type (His139), the mEH enzyme expressed in most NSCLC patients may have intermediate activity. Our findings indicate that with respect to cancer risk and disease progression, the expression level of mEH is as important as genetic polymorphism. In addition, mEH expression in NSCLC could be involved in drug resistance and prognosis of patients.

Overexpression of aldo-keto reductase 1C2 as a high-risk factor in bladder cancer.

Intravesical adjuvant chemotherapy and neoadjuvant chemotherapy has been respectively administered for superficial transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) of urinary bladder and advanced TCC for years. However, the therapeutic efficacy is limited. Recently, overexpression of aldo-keto reductase (AKR) in lung, esophageal, uterine cervical and ovarian cancers was shown to be closely associated with disease progression and drug resistance. In this study, we used immunohistochemistry to determine AKR expression in pathological specimens of 347 patients with urinary bladder cancer (UBC). Some of these patients were from areas with a high risk of black foot disease (BFD), a disease that is closely associated with arsenic contamination of drinking water. The presence of AKR was confirmed by immunoblotting, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). AKR isotype was determined by cDNA sequencing. Our results showed overexpression of AKR1C2 in 226 (65.1%) patients. BFD areas had a higher frequency of patients expressing AKR1C2 in UBC. Among AKR1C2-positive UBC, 148 (65.5%) were invasive, 70 (31.0%) were non-invasive and 8 (3.5%) were carcinoma in situ (CIS). These data indicated that AKR1C2 expression could be significantly associated with cancer invasiveness (p<0.001) and disease progression. Because BFD has been closely related to arsenic ingestion, our results suggested that continual intake of arsenic in drinking water might provoke AKR1C2 expression that could in turn induce drug resistance in UBC, and AKR1C2 could be a tumor marker for UBC.

Prognostic significance of expression of nm23-H1 and focal adhesion kinase in non-small cell lung cancer.

nm23-H1, a nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK), enhances drug sensitivity and has antimetastatic activity, whereas focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is closely associated with cell migration and tumour spreading. The relationship between these two proteins, however, is not well elucidated. In this study, we investigate their correlation in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Expressions of nm23-H1 and FAK were examined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting in surgical resections. The relationship between these two genes was assessed statistically. Patients were classified into four groups according to the expression of nm23-H1 and FAK by immunohistochemistry: FAK-negative/nm23-H1-positive, FAK-negative/nm23-H1-negative, FAK-positive/nm23-H1-positive and FAK-positive/nm23-H1-negative. Although the causal correlation is still uncertain, our results showed that protein expression of nm23-H1 was inversely correlated with that of FAK. The combined analysis of nm23-H1 and FAK protein expression in the same tumour specimens revealed that patients with FAK-negative/nm23-H1-positive tumours survived the longest, 56 months, among those with nm23-H1 and FAK features (P<0.001). Our data indicate that expressions of nm23-H1 and FAK are inversely correlated. These results suggest that the status of nm23-H1 and FAK protein expression may help in predicting the aggressive behavior of NSCLC. However, further studies are warranted to clarify the impact of FAK on the function of nm23-H1 as an anti-metastatic gene.

Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of interleukin (IL)-1beta-encoding genes of five avian species and structural and functional homology among these IL-1beta proteins.

Interleukin (IL)-1beta-encoding regions of chicken, duck, goose, turkey and pigeon were cloned and sequenced. Each IL-1beta-encoding region of chicken, duck, goose and turkey is 804 nucleotides long and encodes IL-1beta protein that is 268 amino acids. Pigeon IL-1beta-encoding region is 810 nucleotides long and encodes IL-1beta protein that is 270 amino acids. Two one-nucleotide and one four-nucleotide insertions of pigeon IL-1beta-encoding region sequence were found, resulting in two amino acid insertions in pigeon IL-1beta. Pairwise sequence analysis showed that the sequence identities of IL-1beta-encoding genes ranged from 77% to 99%, which were also found for IL-1beta protein sequence identities, with an average level of both sequence identities of 89%. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that IL-1beta-encoding regions and the encoded proteins of chicken, duck, goose and turkey clustered together and evolved into a distinct phylogenetic lineage from that of pigeon which evolved into a second lineage. The results from the binding reaction of antiserum against each recombinant IL-1beta (r IL-1beta) protein to homologous or heterologous rIL-1beta, the enhancement levels of K60 mRNA expression in rIL-1beta-treated DF-1 cells or the reduction levels of K60 mRNA expression in DF-1 cells treated with rIL-1beta that was preincubated with homologous or heterologous antiserum showed that all five rIL-1beta were functional active and shared significantly structural and functional homology.

Differentially expressed transcripts in shell glands from low and high egg production strains of chickens using cDNA microarrays.

We have constructed a tissue-specific in-house cDNA microarray to identify differentially expressed transcripts in shell glands from low (B) and high (L2) egg production strains of Taiwanese country chickens during their egg-laying period. The shell gland cDNA library was constructed from the high egg production strain. cDNA clones (7680) were randomly selected and their 5'-end sequences characterized. After excluding overlapping sequences, an in-house cDNA microarray, representing 2743 non-redundant transcripts, was generated for functional genomic studies. Using our microarray, we have successfully identified 85 differentially expressed transcripts from the two different strains of chicken shell glands. In this study, 34 of these transcripts were associated with signal transduction, protein biosynthesis, cell adhesion, cellular metabolism, skeletal development, cell organization and biogenesis. We selected a number of the differentially expressed transcripts for further validation using semi-quantitative RT-PCR. These included elongation factor 2 (EEF2), ovocalyxin-32 (OCX-32) and annexin A2 (ANXA2) which were expressed at high levels in the chicken shell glands of the B strain and, in contrast, the coactosin-like protein (COTL1), transcription factor SOX18 and MX protein were more highly expressed in the L2 strain. Our results suggest that these differentially expressed transcripts may be suitable to use as molecular markers for high rates of egg production, and now need to be investigated further to assess whether they can be applied for use in breeding selection programs in Taiwanese country chickens.