Differences in Malnutrition Inflammation Score of Hemodialysis Patients Associated With Hemodialysis Factors. A Spanish Multicenter Epidemiologic Study.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study are to analyze the prevalence of malnutrition in hemodialysis (HD) patients in Spain, and to assess the association of malnutrition in these patients with sociodemographic characteristics, comorbidity, and parameters related to HD. DESIGN AND METHODS: A multicenter, retrospective, cross-sectional study in HD patients from centers all over Spain was conducted. Nutritional status of patients was assessed using Malnutrition Inflammation Score (MIS), and was stratified according to MIS values into 5 categories: ≤2, normal nutrition; >2 to ≤5, mild malnutrition or risk of malnutrition; >5 to ≤7, moderate malnutrition; >7 to ≤10, severe malnutrition, and >10, extreme malnutrition. RESULTS: A total of 52 Spanish HD Units participated in the study enrolling 2,748 patients. Mean age of patients was 68.20 ± 14.24 years, 1,811 (65.9%) were men. Mean time on HD was 55.63 ± 63.25 months. Using an MIS cut-off point of 2 for malnutrition, 89% of patients were malnourished (MIS > 2). However, with a cut-off point of 5, more commonly described in the literature, the percentage of patients with malnutrition was reduced to 51.7%. Using this cut-off, we observed significant differences between patients with malnutrition and normo-nourished patients in biochemical parameters, age, Charlson Index, HD residual renal function, scheme, and vascular access (permanent catheter vs arteriovenous fistula). A multivariate regression analysis showed that age, sex, HD scheme, vascular access, residual renal function, and comorbidity index were predictive factors for malnutrition. We found that a high percentage of HD patients with malnutrition did not receive oral supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of malnutrition in HD patients in Spain, assessed using the MIS scale, was high. Higher malnutrition was associated with the use of catheter versus fistula, and standard HD versus online hemodiafiltration, and with the absence of residual renal function, older age, greater comorbidity, and male sex. Malnourished patients had a low rate of oral supplementation.

Effectiveness and safety of the conversion to MeltDose® extended-release tacrolimus from other formulations of tacrolimus in stable kidney transplant patients: A retrospective study.

Tacrolimus is the cornerstone of immunosuppressive therapy after kidney transplantation. Its narrow therapeutic window mandates serum level strict monitoring and dose adjustments to ensure the optimal risk-benefit balance. This observational retrospective study analyzed the effectiveness and safety of conversion from twice-daily immediate-release tacrolimus (IR-Tac) or once-daily prolonged-release tacrolimus (PR-Tac) to the recent formulation once-daily MeltDose® extended-release tacrolimus (LCP-Tac) in 365 stable kidney transplant recipients. We compared kidney function three months before and three months after the conversion. Three months after conversion, the total daily dose was reduced ~35% (P < .0001), and improved bioavailability and stable serum LCP-Tac concentrations were observed. There was no increase in the number of patients requiring tacrolimus dose adjustments after conversion. Renal function was unaltered, and no cases of BPAR were reported. Reports of tremors, as collected in the clinical histories for each patient, decreased from pre-conversion (20.8%) to post-conversion (11.8%, P < .0001). LCP-Tac generated a cost reduction of 63% compared with PR-Tac. In conclusion, the conversion strategy to LCP-Tac from other tacrolimus formulations in stable kidney transplant patients showed safety and effectiveness in a real-world setting, confirming the data from RCTs. The specific pharmacokinetic properties of LCP-Tac could be potentially advantageous in patients with tacrolimus-related adverse events.

Impact of isolated hepatitis C virus (HCV) core-specific antibody detection and viral RNA amplification among HCV-seronegative dialysis patients at risk for infection.

Amplification of hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA from blood detected occult HCV infections in 30.9% of 210 HCV-seronegative dialysis patients with abnormal liver enzyme levels that had evaded standard HCV testing practices. Isolated HCV core-specific antibody detection identified three additional anti-HCV screening-negative patients lacking HCV RNA amplification in blood who were considered potentially infectious. Together, these findings may affect management of the dialysis setting.

Effect of SGLT2 inhibitors on anemia and their possible clinical implications.

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) have demonstrated cardiovascular and renal benefits in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, heart failure, or chronic kidney disease. Since the first studies with these drugs, an initial increase in hemoglobin/hematocrit levels was observed, which was attributed to an increase in hemoconcentration associated with its diuretic effect, although it was early appearent that these drugs increased erythropoietin levels and erythropoiesis, and improved iron metabolism. Mediation studies found that the increase in hemoglobin was strongly associated with the cardiorenal benefits of these drugs. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms for improving erythropoiesis and the implication of the increase in hemoglobin on the cardiorenal prognostic benefit of these drugs.

Definition and evolution of the concept of sarcopenia.

Sarcopenia and dynapenia are two terms associated with ageing that respectively define the loss of muscle mass and strength. In 2018, the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) introduced the EWGSOP2 diagnostic algorithm for sarcopenia, which integrates both concepts. It consists of 4 sequential steps: screening for sarcopenia, examination of muscle strength, assessment of muscle mass and physical performance; depending on these last 3 aspects sarcopenia is categorised as probable, confirmed, and severe respectively. In the absence of validation of the EWGSOP2 algorithm in various clinical contexts, its use in haemodialysis poses several limitations: (a) low sensitivity of the screening, (b) the techniques that assess muscle mass are not very accessible, reliable, or safe in routine clinical care, (c) the sequential use of the magnitudes that assess dynapenia and muscle mass do not seem to adequately reflect the muscular pathology of the elderly person on dialysis. We reflect on the definition of sarcopenia and the use of more precise terms such as "myopenia" (replacing the classic concept of sarcopenia to designate loss of muscle mass), dynapenia and kratopenia. Prospective evaluation of EWGSOP2 and its comparison with alternatives (i.e. assessment of kratopenia and dynapenia only; steps 2 and 4) is proposed in terms of its applicability in clinical routine, resource consumption, identification of at-risk individuals and impact on events.

A roadmap for implementing a successful clinical experience with intradialytic parenteral nutrition.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Intradialytic parenteral nutrition (IDPN) is a safe and effective patient-tailored nutritional strategy for providing nutrient supplementation to malnourished or at risk of malnutrition patients on hemodialysis (HD), who did not adequately respond to intensive dietary counselling and oral nutritional supplementation. Although IDPN is recommended by current ESPEN and KDOQI guidelines for nutrition in HD patients, none of these documents informs how to successfully implement this therapy, being the lack of knowledge on practical aspects of IDPN one of the main limitations to its use. The aim of this narrative review was to provide a practical roadmap for guiding the nephrologists, dietitians, and renal nurses in their everyday clinical practice about the use of IDPN. METHODS: A multidisciplinary group formed by specialists from the areas of Nephrology and Nutrition agreed to address different practical aspects related to IDPN in HD patients. Based on the available evidence in the literature and on the authors' clinical experience, different topics were selected to develop a detailed plan for implementing a successful experience with IDPN, proposing a practical IDPN roadmap. RESULTS: This IDPN roadmap provides practical information on when an IDPN should be started; what type of nutrients should be part of an IDPN; how the IDPN should be administered; how the effectiveness and safety of the IDPN should be monitored; how to determine the effectiveness of IDPN; and the conditions that advise discontinuing the IDPN. CONCLUSIONS: IDPN is a safe and effective nutritional therapy for HD patients, although the lack of staff training may limit its use. This review addresses different practical aspects of IDPN, helping interdisciplinary teams in their daily clinical practice to improve the nutritional care of HD patients, either malnourished or at risk of malnutrition.

Osteoporosis management in patients with chronic kidney disease (ERCOS Study): A challenge in nephrological care.

Fracture risk assessment in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been included in the CKD-MBD ("Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorders") complex in international and national nephrology guidelines, suggesting for the first time the assessment of bone mineral density (BMD) if the results can influence therapeutic decision-making. However, there is very little information on actual clinical practice in this population. The main objective of the ERCOS (ERC-Osteoporosis) study is to describe the profile of patients with CKD G3-5D with osteoporosis (OP) and/or fragility fractures treated in specialized nephrology, rheumatology and internal medicine clinics in Spain. Fifteen centers participated and 162 patients (mostly women [71.2%] postmenopausal [98.3%]) with a median age of 77 years were included. Mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was 36 mL/min/1.73 m2 and 38% of the included patients were on dialysis. We highlight the high frequency of prevalent fragility fractures [37.7%), mainly vertebral (52.5%) and hip (24.6%)], the disproportionate history of patients with glomerular disease compared to purely nephrological series (corticosteroids) and undertreatment for fracture prevention, especially in nephrology consultations. This study is an immediate call to action with the dissemination of the new, more proactive, clinical guidelines, and underlines the need to standardize a coordinated and multidisciplinary care/therapeutic approach to these patients in an efficient way to avoid current discrepancies and therapeutic nihilism.

Endogenous testosterone, muscle strength, and fat-free mass in men with chronic kidney disease.

OBJECTIVE: Testosterone deficiency is a common finding in men with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Testosterone is thought to play an important anabolic role in muscle synthesis, and muscle wasting is an important and deleterious characteristic of protein-energy wasting (PEW) in CKD. It is presently unknown if reduced endogenous testosterone associates with features of muscle wasting in men with CKD. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional observational study of 267 men with CKD stages 2-4 (mean ± standard deviation age 67 ± 13 years, estimated glomerular filtration rate 42.9 [interquartile range 30.2-56.7] mL/min/1.73 m²) with measurements of endogenous testosterone and surrogates of PEW such as albumin, prealbumin, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (CRP) and normalized protein nitrogen appearance (nPNA). Fat-free mass was estimated by bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) and muscle strength by handgrip dynamometry. RESULTS: Across decreasing thirds of testosterone distribution, patients were incrementally older and CRP levels rose significantly. Prealbumin, hemoglobin, nPNA, handgrip strength, and BIVA estimated surrogates of muscle mass and nutritional status (fat-free mass, body cell mass, and phase angle) were progressively reduced (P < .05 for all). In multivariate regression analyses including age, renal function, and other important confounders, testosterone significantly and independently contributed to explain the variances of handgrip strength and fat-free mass (P < .05 for all). CONCLUSIONS: Endogenous testosterone independently associates with muscle strength and fat-free mass in men with moderate CKD. It is plausible that the reduction in testosterone levels that accompanies CKD may further contribute to the procatabolic environment leading to muscle wasting.

Changes in peritoneal membrane permeability and proteinuria in patients on peritoneal dialysis after treatment with paricalcitol − a preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: Patients on peritoneal dialysis (PD) have protein loss through peritoneal membrane (PM) and experience changes in permeability of the membrane. Paricalcitol is a selective vitamin D receptor activator with an effect upon systemic inflammation and an inhibitory effect upon the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). METHODS: This study explores the possible effect of paricalcitol upon the PM in 23 patients on PD with high iPTH levels. Peritoneal kinetic studies were performed before and after paricalcitol, measuring also ultrafiltration/ day, peritoneal protein losses and proteinuria. Results were compared with a control group of 15 patients not receiving any form of vitamin D. RESULTS: With a mean dose of 1.3 µg/day, peritoneal protein loss decreased from 0.91 ± 0.35 to 0.76 ± 0.26 g/l (15.4%) (p = 0.007) and from 7.55 to 6.46 g/d (p < 0.033), and ultrafiltration increased from 844 to 1,002 ml/d (15.8%) (p = 0.037) and from 284 to 323 ml/4 h. (NS), with minimal change in the creatinine dialysate/plasma ratio 0.67 ± 0.12 vs. 0.65 ± 0.11. Proteinuria decreased from 1.65 to 1.25 g/l (21.9%) (p = 0.01) and iPTH decreased from 668 ± 303 to 291 ± 148 pg/ml (p < 0.001). In the control group, no changes in peritoneal membrane permeability and proteinuria were found. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study indicate that paricalcitol is effective in treating hyperparathyroidism in patients on PD, and suggest an effect upon proteinuria and PM permeability (not previously reported), with diminished peritoneal protein loss and increased ultrafiltration. The antiinflammatory, antifibrotic and RAAS-modulating actions described for paricalcitol may be responsible for these findings, and could be important for preserving the peritoneum as a dialyzing membrane.

Experience in Spain with the first patients in home hemodialysis treated with low-flow dialysate monitors.

Home hemodialysis (HHD) with low-flow dialysate devices has gained popularity in recent years due to its simple design, portability, and ability to provide greater freedom of movement for our patients. However, there are doubts about the adequacy that this technology offers, since it uses monitors with low-flow bath and lactate. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the clinical benefits of low-flow HHD with the NxStage System One® recently introduced in Spain. We present the results of an observational, retrospective cohort study that included the first patients who started short daily HHD with this device in 12 Spanish centers. We analyzed the evolution of 86 patients at 0, 6 and 12 months, including data related to prescription, and evolution of biochemical parameters related to dialysis dose, anemia, mineral-bone metabolism; evolution of residual renal function, medication usage, and causes of withdrawal during the followup. We were able to demonstrate that this NxStage System One® monitor, in patients with HHD, have provided an adequate dialysis dose, with optimal ultrafiltration rate, with improvement of main biochemical markers of dialysis adequacy. The usage of this technique was associated to a decrease of antihypertensive drugs, phosphate binders and erythropoietin agents, with very good results both patient and technique survival. The simplicity of the technique, together with its good clinical outcomes, should facilitate the growth and utilization of HHD, both in incident and prevalent patients.

Experience in Spain with the first patients in home hemodialysis treated with low-flow dialysate monitors. / Experiencia en España con los primeros pacientes en hemodiálisis domiciliaria tratados con monitores de bajo flujo de líquido de diálisis.

Home hemodialysis (HHD) with low-flow dialysate devices has gained popularity in recent years due to its simple design, portability, and ability to provide greater freedom of movement for our patients. However, there are doubts about the adequacy that this technology offers, since it uses monitors with low-flow bath and lactate. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the clinical benefits of low-flow HHD with the NxStage System One® recently introduced in Spain. We present the results of an observational, retrospective cohort study that included the first patients who started short daily HHD with this device in 12 Spanish centers. We analyzed the evolution of 86 patients at 0, 6 and 12 months, including data related to prescription, and evolution of biochemical parameters related to dialysis dose, anemia, mineral-bone metabolism; evolution of residual renal function, medication usage, and causes of withdrawal during the followup. We were able to demonstrate that this NxStage System One® monitor, in patients with HHD, have provided an adequate dialysis dose, with optimal ultrafiltration rate, with improvement of main biochemical markers of dialysis adequacy. The usage of this technique was associated to a decrease of antihypertensive drugs, phosphate binders and erythropoietin agents, with very good results both patient and technique survival. The simplicity of the technique, together with its good clinical outcomes, should facilitate the growth and utilization of HHD, both in incident and prevalent patients.

Peritoneal protein losses in diabetic patients starting peritoneal dialysis: is there a relationship with diabetic vascular lesions?

During peritoneal dialysis (PD), a significant amount of protein is lost through the peritoneal membrane, and these losses could influence the patient's nutrition status. It has been reported that peritoneal protein loss (PPL) is greater in diabetic (D) patients than in nondiabetic (ND) patients, but the topic is still controversial, and the factors involved are not totally defined. We studied 23 patients on continuous ambulatory PD (12 with diabetes) who had experienced no episodes of infection during the preceding months. We measured peritoneal transport, PPL, proteinuria, and parameters of inflammation and nutrition. Our study was carried out during the first months of PD (2 - 4 months), which coincided with the first evaluation of peritoneal transport. The PPL was higher in D patients than in ND patients (8.4 +/- 2.2 g vs. 5.7 +/- 1.7 g daily, p < 0.001), as was proteinuria (3.7 +/- 2.7 g vs. 0.9 +/- 0.7 g daily, p = 0.003). In 83% of D patients and 54% of ND patients, peritoneal transport (p = 0.002) was high or high-average. Dialysate-to-plasma creatinine in D patients was 0.77 +/- 0.12 as compared with 0.66 +/- 0.09 in ND patients (p = 0.031). Parameters of nutrition and inflammation were normal in both groups of patients and showed no significant differences, except for serum total protein, which was significantly lower in D patients. Ultrafiltration, Kt/V, and weekly creatinine clearance were similar in both groups. The D patients with a higher PPL had the highest proteinuria values. We conclude that the higher PPL seen in D patients starting PD seems to be related to high membrane transport in these patients. The condition of high transport in D patients could be a result of diabetic microvascular lesions that cause a similar pattern of permeability in the peritoneal and glomerular membranes.

Abnormalities in Glucose Metabolism, Appetite-Related Peptide Release, and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines Play a Central Role in Appetite Disorders in Peritoneal Dialysis.

Background: Appetite disorders are frequent and scantly studied in peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients and are associated with malnutrition and cardiovascular complications. Objective: We investigated the relationship between uremic insulin resistance, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and appetite-related peptides release (ARPr) with eating-behavior disorders in PD patients. Methods: We included 42 PD patients (12 suffering anorexia, 12 obese with high food-intake, and 18 asymptomatic) and 10 controls. We measured blood levels of ARPr including orexigens [neuropeptide-Y (NPY), ghrelin, and nitric-oxide], anorexigens [cholecystokinin, insulin, corticotropin-releasing factor, leptin, and adiponectin (Ad)], and cytokines (TNF-α, sTNFα-R2, and IL-6) both at baseline and after administering a standard-food stimulus (SFS). We also measured the expression of TNF-α, leptin and Ad-encoding mRNAs in abdominal adipose tissue. We compared these markers with eating motivation measured by a Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Results: Anorexics showed both little appetite, measured by a VAS, and low levels of orexigens that remained constant after SFS, coupled with high levels of anorexigens at baseline and after SFS. Obeses showed higher appetite, increased baseline levels of orexigens, lower baseline levels of anorexigens and cytokines and two peaks of NPY after SFS. The different patterns of ARPr and cytokines pointed to a close relationship with uremic insulin resistance. In fact, the euglycemic-hyperglycemic clamp reproduced these disorders. In anorexics, TNF-α fat expression was increased. In obese patients, leptin expression in fat tissue was down-regulated and showed correlation with the appetite. Conclusion: In PD, appetite is governed by substances that are altered at baseline and abnormally released. Such modulators are controlled by insulin metabolism and cytokines and, while anorexics display inflammatory predominance, obese patients predominantly display insulin resistance.

Osteoporosis, bone mineral density and CKD-MBD (II): Therapeutic implications. / Osteoporosis, densidad mineral ósea y complejo CKD-MBD (II): implicaciones terapéuticas.

Osteoporosis (OP) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) both independently affect bone health. A significant number of patients with CKD have decreased bone mineral density (BMD), are at high risk of fragility fractures and have an increased morbidity and mortality risk. With an ageing population, these observations are not only dependent on "renal osteodystrophy" but also on the associated OP. As BMD predicts incident fractures in CKD patients (partI), we now aim to analyse the potential therapeutic consequences. Post-hoc analyses of randomised studies have shown that the efficacy of drugs such as alendronate, risedronate, raloxifene, teriparatide and denosumab is similar to that of the general population in patients with a mild/moderate decline in their glomerular filtration rate (especially CKD-3). These studies have some flaws however, as they included mostly "healthy" women with no known diagnosis of CKD and generally with normal lab test results. Nevertheless, there are also some positive preliminary data in more advanced stages (CKD-4), even though in CKD-5D they are more limited. Therefore, at least in the absence of significant mineral metabolism disorders (i.e. severe hyperparathyroidism), the potential benefit of these drugs should be considered in patients with a high or very high fracture risk. It is an important change that the new guidelines do not make it a requirement to first perform a bone biopsy and that the risk/benefit ratio of these drugs may be justified. However, we must also be aware that most studies are not consistent and the level of evidence is low. Consequently, any pharmacological intervention (risk/benefit) should be prudent and individualised.

Restless Legs Syndrome: An Unresolved Uremic Disorder after Renal Transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a common complication of uremia that may improve after transplantation. Its frequency might not be as low as expected, as some uremic disturbances may continue even after a successful graft. Our aim was to investigate the prevalence and related conditions for RLS in renal transplant patients. METHODS: We carried out a cross-sectional, observational study. A self-administered questionnaire following the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group diagnostic criteria was administered to 129 patients (82 men and 47 women) aged 57 ± 12.8 years followed up for at least 1 year, with stable renal function (Cr 1.5 ± 0.54 mg/dL). Patients with probable RLS according to the screening questionnaire underwent comprehensive neurological examination to exclude RLS mimics. RESULTS: The frequency of RLS according to questionnaires was 29.5% (18 men/20 women). After neurological exam, RLS was confirmed in 19 patients providing an overall frequency of 14.8% (higher than the prevalence in the general population). A definitive diagnosis of RLS was established for 6 men (7.3%) and 13 women (27.7%), indicating a positive predictive value for the screening questionnaire of 65% for women and 33% for men. There were fewer patients under renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) blocking treatment in the RLS group (21.1 vs. 47.3%). Women with RLS had poorer renal function (52 ± 17.5 vs. 42 ± 13.9 mL/min) and phosphate-reabsorption rate (75 ± 10.5 vs. 65 ± 9.2). There was no difference in age, comorbidities, anticalcineurin therapy, renal function, anemia and time since transplantation between transplant patients with and without RLS. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of RLS after transplantation remains high (14.8%). This condition is twice more prevalent for females. Contribution of RAAS, graft function and phosphate overload requires further investigation.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) estimated by skin autofluorescence are related with cardiovascular risk in renal transplant.

BACKGROUND: Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) accumulation, a measure of cumulative metabolic stress, constitute a novel pathogenic mechanism involved in aging, diabetes, cardiovascular (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Despite removal of uremic toxins and AGEs after a successful renal transplant (RT), CVD remains the leading cause of mortality. We hypothesized that AGEs measurement by Skin Autofluorescence (SAF) might be useful even after a successful RT and thus reflect the high cardiovascular risk burden of these patients. METHODS: 189 stable RT (61% men, aged 56±13.0 years), CKD stages 1-4 and >12 months since RT were enrolled. Variables collected comprised comorbid history, medication use, smoking habit, routine biochemistry, subclinical atheromatosis by ankle-brachial-index (ABI) and allograft resistivity index (RI), 24-h ABPM, anthropometry and handgrip strength. AGEs were measured by SAF and expressed in arbitrary units (AU). Vascular age was estimated by Koetsier´s formula (SAF-0.83/0.024) and expected 10-years cardiovascular death risk was calculated with the REGICOR score. RESULTS: Mean SAF was 3.00±0.83 AU and estimated vascular age 90±34.7 years (30 years above biological age). SAF was higher among men (3.10±0.91 vs 2.81±0.66), diabetic nephropathy (3.49±0.75 vs 2.96±0.83) and steroid users (3.14±0.86 vs 2.71±0.69). We observed a positive correlation of SAF with night-systolic blood pressure (r = 0.25, p = 0.001), parathormone (r = 0.20, p<0.01), phosphate (r = 0.28, p<0.001) and negative with hemoglobin (r = -0.29, p<0.001), CKD-EPI (r = -0.32, p<0.001), albumin (r = -0.17, p<0.05), and dynamometry (r = -0.20, p<0.01). Subclinical vascular atheromatosis (ABI and RI) as well as the REGICOR scale (r = 0.35 p<0.001) were also correlated with SAF. In multivariable analysis age, gender, steroid use, serum phosphate and handgrip strength remained independently associated with SAF. CONCLUSIONS: SAF levels are elevated in RT patients and correlate with CVD risk. Besides age and male sex, our results suggest that phosphate overload, steroid use and nutritional status are important factors linking to AGEs accumulation.

Osteoporosis, bone mineral density and CKD-MBD complex (I): Diagnostic considerations. / Osteoporosis, densidad mineral ósea y complejo CKD-MBD (I): consideraciones diagnósticas.

Osteoporosis (OP) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) independently influence bone and cardiovascular health. A considerable number of patients with CKD, especially those with stages 3a to 5D, have a significantly reduced bone mineral density leading to a high risk of fracture and a significant increase in associated morbidity and mortality. Independently of classic OP related to age and/or gender, the mechanical properties of bone are also affected by inherent risk factors for CKD ("uraemic OP"). In the first part of this review, we will analyse the general concepts regarding bone mineral density, OP and fractures, which have been largely undervalued until now by nephrologists due to the lack of evidence and diagnostic difficulties in the context of CKD. It has now been proven that a reduced bone mineral density is highly predictive of fracture risk in CKD patients, although it does not allow a distinction to be made between the causes which generate it (hyperparathyroidism, adynamic bone disease and/or senile osteoporosis, etc.). Therefore, in the second part, we will analyse the therapeutic indications in different CKD stages. In any case, the individual assessment of factors which represent a higher or lower risk of fracture, the quantification of this risk (i.e. using tools such as FRAX®) and the potential indications for densitometry in patients with CKD could represent an important first step pending new clinical guidelines based on randomised studies which do not exclude CKD patients, all the while avoiding therapeutic nihilism in an area of growing importance.