Positive effect of combined exercise training in a model of metabolic syndrome and menopause: autonomic, inflammatory, and oxidative stress evaluations.

It is now well established that after menopause cardiometabolic disorders become more common. Recently, resistance exercise has been recommended as a complement to aerobic (combined training, CT) for the treatment of cardiometabolic diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of CT in hypertensive ovariectomized rats undergoing fructose overload in blood pressure variability (BPV), inflammation, and oxidative stress parameters. Female rats were divided into the following groups (n = 8/group): sedentary normotensive Wistar rats (C), and sedentary (FHO) or trained (FHOT) ovariectomized spontaneously hypertensive rats undergoing and fructose overload. CT was performed on a treadmill and ladder adapted to rats in alternate days (8 wk; 40-60% maximal capacity). Arterial pressure (AP) was directly measured. Oxidative stress and inflammation were measured on cardiac and renal tissues. The association of risk factors (hypertension + ovariectomy + fructose) promoted increase in insulin resistance, mean AP (FHO: 174 ± 4 vs. C: 108 ± 1 mmHg), heart rate (FHO: 403 ± 12 vs. C: 352 ± 11 beats/min), BPV, cardiac inflammation (tumor necrosis factor-α-FHO: 65.8 ± 9.9 vs. C: 23.3 ± 4.3 pg/mg protein), and oxidative stress cardiac and renal tissues. However, CT was able to reduce mean AP (FHOT: 158 ± 4 mmHg), heart rate (FHOT: 303 ± 5 beats/min), insulin resistance, and sympathetic modulation. Moreover, the trained rats presented increased nitric oxide bioavailability, reduced tumor necrosis factor-α (FHOT: 33.1 ± 4.9 pg/mg protein), increased IL-10 in cardiac tissue and reduced lipoperoxidation, and increased antioxidant defenses in cardiac and renal tissues. In conclusion, the association of risk factors promoted an additional impairment in metabolic, cardiovascular, autonomic, inflammatory, and oxidative stress parameters and combined exercise training was able to attenuate these dysfunctions.

Cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction and oxidative stress induced by fructose overload in an experimental model of hypertension and menopause.

BACKGROUND: Metabolic syndrome is characterized by the association of 3 or more risk factors, including: abdominal obesity associated with an excess of abdominal fat, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia and hypertension. Moreover, the prevalence of hypertension and metabolic dysfunctions sharply increases after the menopause. However, the mechanisms involved in these changes are not well understood. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of fructose overload on cardiovascular autonomic modulation, inflammation and cardiac oxidative stress in an experimental model of hypertension and menopause. METHODS: Female SHR rats were divided into (n = 8/group): hypertensive (H), hypertensive ovariectomized (HO) and hypertensive ovariectomized undergoing fructose overload (100 g/L in drinking water) (FHO). Arterial pressure (AP) signals were directly recorded. Cardiac autonomic modulation was evaluated by spectral analysis. Oxidative stress was evaluated in cardiac tissue. RESULTS: AP was higher in the FHO group when compared to the other groups. Fructose overload promoted an increase in body and fat weight, triglyceride concentration and a reduction in insulin sensitivity. IL-10 was reduced in the FHO group when compared to the H group. TNF-α was higher in the FHO when compared to all other groups. Lipoperoxidation was higher and glutathione redox balance was reduced in the FHO group when compared to other groups, an indication of increased oxidative stress. A negative correlation was found between IL-10 and adipose tissue. CONCLUSION: Fructose overload promoted an impairment in cardiac autonomic modulation associated with inflammation and oxidative stress in hypertensive rats undergoing ovarian hormone deprivation.

Aerobic or resistance training improves autonomic control of circulation in oophorectomized rats with cardiometabolic dysfunctions: Impact on renal oxidative stress.

Cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction is associated with end organ damage and increased risk of mortality. Menopause and metabolic syndrome increase the risk for cardiorenal complications. In this study, we investigated the effects of aerobic or resistance exercise training on autonomic control of circulation and renal oxidative stress in a model of menopause and metabolic syndrome. Female Wistar rats and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were divided into 5 groups (n = 8): control (C), hypertensive (H), and sedentary (FHO), aerobic trained (FHOTa) and resistance trained (FHOTr) oophorectomized hypertensive treated with fructose (100 mg/mL drink water for 19 weeks). The FHO group presented increased vascular sympathetic modulation (LF-SBP), impaired baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) associated with increased blood pressure (BP) when compared to the H group. Aerobic exercise training enhanced tachycardic responses, while resistance training improved bradycardic responses to BP changes, thus ameliorating BRS. Moreover, despite unchanged BP, both exercise training protocols were effective in preventing increase in LF-SBP, reduction in systemic nitric oxide bioavailability (NOx), and increase in oxidative stress in the renal tissue, by decreasing lipid and protein oxidation in renal tissue. Positive correlation between LF-SBP and renal lipoperoxidation (r = 0.63, p < 0.05), as well as a negative correlation between NOx and renal lipoperoxidation (r = -0.66, p < 0.05) were observed. In conclusion, both aerobic and resistance exercise training were effective in improving autonomic control of circulation and reducing renal oxidative stress, thus attenuating the deleterious effects induced by arterial hypertension and fructose overload in female rats after ovarian hormone deprivation.

Impact of combined exercise training on the development of cardiometabolic and neuroimmune complications induced by fructose consumption in hypertensive rats.

This study evaluated the impact of combined exercise training on the development of cardiovascular and neuroimmune complications induced by fructose consumption (10% in the drinking water) in hypertensive rats (SHR). After weaning, SHR were divided into 3 groups: SHR (H), SHR+fructose (HF) and SHR+fructose+combined exercise training (treadmill+ladder, 40-60% of maximum capacity) (HFTC). Metabolic, hemodynamic, autonomic, inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters were evaluated in the subgroups (n = 6 group/time) at 7, 15, 30 and 60 days of protocol. Fructose consumption (H vs. HF groups) decreased spontaneous baroreflex sensitivity and total variance of pulse interval at day 7 (7 to 60); increased IL-6 and TNFα in the heart (at day 15, 30 and 60) and NADPH oxidase activity and cardiac lipoperoxidation (LPO) (day 60); increased white adipose tissue weight, reduced insulin sensitivity and increased triglycerides (day 60); induced an additional increase in mean arterial pressure (MAP) (days 30 and 60). Combined exercise training prevented such dysfunctions and sustained increased cardiac IL-10 (day 7) and glutathione redox balance (GSH/GSSG) for the entire protocol. In conclusion, combined exercise training performed simultaneously with exacerbated fructose consumption prevented early cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction, probably trigging positive changes in inflammation and oxidative stress, resulting in a better cardiometabolic profile in rats genetically predisposed to hypertension.

Correction: Impact of combined exercise training on the development of cardiometabolic and neuroimmune complications induced by fructose consumption in hypertensive rats.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233785.].

Aerobic Training Is Better Than Resistance Training on Cardiac Function and Autonomic Modulation in Female ob/ob Mice.

Objective: This study evaluated the effects of aerobic, resistance, and combined exercise training on cardiac function and autonomic modulation in female ob/ob mice. Methods: Four-week-old female wild type and obese (ob/ob) mice were divided into five groups (n = 8): control (WT), obese (OB) obese + aerobic training (OBA), obese + resistance training (OBR), and obese + combined training (OBC). The exercise training was performed on treadmill and/or ladder at 40-60% maximum test during 8 weeks. Cardiac function was measured using echo machine. Heart rate variability (HRV) was evaluated in the time and frequency domain. Results: OB group presented higher body weight gain (~600%), glycemia (~44%) and glucose intolerance (~150%), reduction of cardiac vagal modulation, evidenced by a lower RMMSD (~56%), total power and high frequency band, and a higher isovolumic relaxation time (IVRT) (~24%) in relation to the WT group. Aerobic and combined training led to a lower IVRT (OBA: ~14%; OBC: ~14%) and myocardial global index (OBA: ~37%; OBC: ~44%). The OBA group presented an increased in vagal indexes of HRV than the other ob/ob groups. A negative correlation was observed between the delta of aerobic exercise capacity and MPI (r = 0.45; p = 0.002) and exercise capacity and body weight gain (r = 0.39; p = 0.002). Conclusion: Only the obese females underwent to aerobic exercise training showed improvement in cardiac function and HRV. Moreover, the aerobic exercise capacity as well as a greater responsivity to aerobic exercise training is intimately associated with these improvements, reinforcing the importance of aerobic exercise training to this population.

Exercise training initiated at old stage of lifespan attenuates aging-and ovariectomy-induced cardiac and renal oxidative stress: Role of baroreflex.

BACKGROUND: The association of aging and menopause is a potent risk factor for cardiometabolic disease. We studied the impact of aerobic exercise training (ET) initiated in the old stage of lifespan in hemodynamics, metabolic, autonomic and oxidative stress. METHODS: Aged (18 months old) female Wistar rats were divided into: ovariectomized and untrained (AG-OVX), and ovariectomized and trained (AG-OVXt, ET for 8 weeks). Intact aged (AG) and young female rats (3 months old; Y) were also studied. Blood pressure and metabolic parameters were measured. Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) was studied by bradycardic (BR) and tachycardic (TR) responses to vasoactive drugs. Cardiac and renal lipid peroxidation (LPO), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and gluthatione peroxidase (GPx), and gluthatione redox balance (GSH/GSSG) were analyzed. RESULTS: AG-OVXt group increased aerobic performance in 35%, decreased adipose tissue and triglycerides in 36% and 27%, respectively, and improved insulin tolerance in 50% in comparison to AG-OVX. AG-OVX presented hypertensive levels of blood pressure (systolic: 155 ±â€¯5, diastolic: 111 ±â€¯3 mmHg). In contrast, AG-OVXt presented blood pressure values similar to Y rats (systolic: 129 ±â€¯3, diastolic: 112 ±â€¯3 mmHg). TR and BR were reduced by 70% and 46%, respectively, in AG-OVX vs. Y. Once more, AG-OVXt presented similar results to Y. ET decreased LPO in the heart and kidney. In the latter, renal CAT and SOD were corrected by ET, while cardiac redox balance was partially recovered. Improved BRS was correlated with improved oxidative stress markers. CONCLUSIONS: Even when initiated after aging and ovariectomy deleterious effects, ET is able to normalize BRS and highly improve cardiac and renal oxidative stress.

Combined aerobic and resistance exercise training attenuates cardiac dysfunctions in a model of diabetes and menopause.

The study aimed at evaluating the effects of combined aerobic and resistance exercise training on cardiac morphometry and function, oxidative stress and inflammatory parameters in diabetic ovariectomized rats. For this, female Wistar rats (10 weeks-old) were divided into 4 groups (n = 8): euglycemic (E), diabetic (streptozotocin, 50 mg/kg, iv) (D), diabetic ovariectomized (DO) and trained diabetic ovariectomized (TDO). The combined exercise training was performed on a treadmill and in a ladder adapted to rats (8 weeks, at 40-60% of maximal capacity). The left ventricle (LV) morphometry and function were evaluated by echocardiography. Oxidative stress and inflammatory markers were measured on ventricles tissue. The sedentary diabetic animals (D and DO) showed impaired systolic and diastolic functions, as well as increased cardiac overload, evaluated by myocardial performance index (MPI- D: 0.32 ± 0.05; DO: 0.39 ± 0.13 vs. E: 0.25 ± 0.07), in relation to E group. Systolic and MPI dysfunctions were exacerbated in DO when compared to D group. The DO group presented higher protein oxidation and TNF-α/IL-10 ratio than D groups. Glutathione redox ratio (GSH/GSSG) and IL-10 were decreased in both D and DO groups when compared to E group. Exercise training improved exercise capacity, systolic and diastolic functions and MPI (0.18±0.11). The TDO group showed reduced protein oxidation and TNF-α/IL-10 ratio and increased GSH/GSSG and IL-10 in relation to the DO group. These results showed that combined exercise training was able to attenuate the cardiac dysfunctions, probably by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in an experimental model of diabetes and menopause.

Measurement of Mouse Heart Rate Variability using Echocardiographic System.

AIM: We employed an echocardiographic (ECHO) system as the backbone for the collection of electrocardiogram (ECG) and heart rate variability (HRV) data. The system was tested using an exercise model in which C57 male mice were exposed to sham or forced wheel running. METHODS: Peak/peak (RR) interval was recorded over a 3 min period using the ECG platform of the ECHO system. Isoflurane-anesthetized male mice were divided into two groups (n = 8/group): sedentary (S) and forced wheel trained (T). HRV was analyzed in time and frequency domains (Fast Fourier Transform). Exercise training (T) was performed on a motorized wheel at low intensity 1 h/day, 5 days/week, 8 weeks duration. Cardiac morphometry and function were analyzed using ECHO while ECG was the basis to measure HRV. The sampling rate was 8000 Hz. Results show that the trained mice presented a reduction in heart rate as compared to the sedentary group. This was associated with lower cardiac sympathetic and higher parasympathetic modulation leading to an improved sympathetic/parasympathetic ratio (low-frequency band/high-frequency band). The trained group showed a reduction in isovolumetric relaxation time, reduced myocardial performance index, increased relative wall thickness, and left ventricle mass when compared to the sedentary group. CONCLUSION: Results document the utility of combining the ECHO and the ECG platform, allowing for the dual measurement of autonomic and cardiac function in mice.

Baroreflex Impairment Precedes Cardiometabolic Dysfunction in an Experimental Model of Metabolic Syndrome: Role of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress.

This study analyzes whether autonomic dysfunction precedes cardiometabolic alterations in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) with fructose overload. Animals were randomly distributed into three groups: control, hypertensive and hypertensive with fructose overload. Fructose overload (100 g/L) was initiated at 30 days old, and the animals (n = 6/group/time) were evaluated after 7, 15, 30 and 60 days of fructose consumption. Fructose consumption reduced baroreflex sensitivity by day 7, and still induced a progressive reduction in baroreflex sensitivity over the time. Fructose consumption also increased TNFα and IL-6 levels in the adipose tissue and IL-1ß levels in the spleen at days 15 and 30. Fructose consumption also reduced plasmatic nitrites (day 15 and 30) and superoxide dismutase activity (day 15 and 60), but increased hydrogen peroxide (day 30 and 60), lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation (day 60). Fructose consumption increased arterial pressure at day 30 (8%) and 60 (11%). Fructose consumption also induced a late insulin resistance at day 60, but did not affect glucose levels. In conclusion, the results show that baroreflex sensitivity impairment precedes inflammatory and oxidative stress disorders, probably by inducing hemodynamic and metabolic dysfunctions observed in metabolic syndrome.

Aerobic exercise training promotes additional cardiac benefits better than resistance exercise training in postmenopausal rats with diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of aerobic exercise training or resistance exercise training on cardiac morphometric, functional, and oxidative stress parameters in rats with ovarian hormone deprivation and diabetes. METHODS: Female Wistar rats (200-220 g) were divided into a sham-operated group (euglycemic sham-operated sedentary [ES]; n = 8) and three ovariectomized (bilateral removal of ovaries) and diabetic (streptozotocin 50 mg/kg IV) groups as follows: diabetic ovariectomized sedentary (DOS; n = 8), diabetic ovariectomized undergoing aerobic exercise training (DOTA; n = 8), and diabetic ovariectomized undergoing resistance exercise training (DOTR; n = 8). After 8 weeks of resistance (ladder) or aerobic (treadmill) exercise training, left ventricle function and morphometry were evaluated by echocardiography, whereas oxidative stress was evaluated at the left ventricle. RESULTS: The DOS group presented with increased left ventricle cavity in diastole and relative wall thickness (RWT), and these changes were attenuated in both DOTA and DOTR groups. Systolic and diastolic function was impaired in the DOS group compared with the ES group, and only the DOTA group was able to reverse this dysfunction. Lipoperoxidation and glutathione redox balance were improved in both trained groups compared with the DOS group. Glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase were higher in the DOTA group than in the other studied groups. Correlations were observed between lipoperoxidation and left ventricle cavity in diastole (r = 0.55), between redox balance and RWT (r = 0.62), and between lipoperoxidation and RWT (r = -0.60). CONCLUSIONS: Aerobic exercise training and resistance exercise training promote attenuation of cardiac morphometric dysfunction associated with a reduction in oxidative stress in an experimental model of diabetes and menopause. However, only dynamic aerobic exercise training is able to attenuate systolic and diastolic dysfunction under this condition.

Dynamic aerobic exercise induces baroreflex improvement in diabetic rats.

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of an acute aerobic exercise on arterial pressure (AP), heart rate (HR), and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Male Wistar rats were divided into control (n = 8) and diabetic (n = 8) groups. AP, HR, and BRS, which were measured by tachycardic and bradycardic (BR) responses to AP changes, were evaluated at rest (R) and postexercise session (PE) on a treadmill. At rest, STZ diabetes induced AP and HR reductions, associated with BR impairment. Attenuation in resting diabetes-induced AP (R: 103 ± 2 versus PE: 111 ± 3 mmHg) and HR (R: 290 ± 7 versus PE: 328 ± 10 bpm) reductions and BR dysfunction (R: -0.70 ± 0.06 versus PE: -1.21 ± 0.09 bpm/mmHg) was observed in the postexercise period. In conclusion, the hemodynamic and arterial baro-mediated control of circulation improvement in the postexercise period reinforces the role of exercise in the management of cardiovascular risk in diabetes.

Influência dos hormônios sexuais no consumo de oxigênio de ratos / Influence of sexual hormones on oxygen consumption in rats / Influencia de las hormonas sexuales en el consumo de oxígeno en ratas

Introdução: Achados da literatura sugerem que oscilações dos hormônios sexuais femininos podem alterar o consumo máximo de oxigênio (VO2max). Objetivo: Comparar o VO2max entre ratos machos (M, n=8), fêmeas nas fases ovulatórias (OV, n=8) ou não-ovulatórias (NOV, n=8) do ciclo estral e ooforectomizadas (OS, n=8). Métodos: A avaliação do consumo de oxigênio foi realizada em esteira rolante com caixa metabólica acoplada. Resultados: Em repouso, o VO2 foi semelhante entre os grupos estudados. O grupo M apresentou maior VO2max em relação ao grupo NOV, mas valores semelhantes ao do grupo OV. O VO2max foi menor no grupo ooforectomizado (OS: 62±3 ml.kg-1.min-1) quando comparado aos demais grupos (M: 92±2; NOV: 77±4; OV: 87±3 ml.kg-1.min-1). Conclusões: Esses achados evidenciam que a variação hormonal decorrente das diferentes fases do ciclo estral e da privação dos hormônios ovarianos pode induzir alterações no consumo máximo de oxigênio em ratos. .

Introduction: Literature findings suggest that fluctuations of female sex hormones may change the maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max). Objective: To compare the VO2 max among male rats (M, n = 8), female rats on ovulatory (OV, n=8) or non-ovulatory (NOV, n=8) phases of the estrous cycle and ovariectomized (OS, n=8). Methods: The evaluation of oxygen consumption was performed on a treadmill coupled with metabolic box. Results: At rest VO2 was similar among groups. The M group had a higher VO2 max compared to the NOV group, however showed similar values when compared to OV group. The VO2 max was lower in the ovariectomized group (OS: 62±3 ml.kg-1.min-1) compared to other groups (M: 92±2; NOV: 77 ± 4; OV: 87 ± 3 ml.kg-1.min-1). Conclusions: These findings suggest that hormonal variation resulting from different phases of the estrous cycle and ovarian hormone deprivation can induce changes in maximal oxygen uptake in rats. .

Introducción: Hallazgos de la literatura sugieren que oscilaciones de las hormonas sexuales femeninas pueden alterar el consumo máximo de oxígeno (VO2max). Objetivo: Comparar el VO2max entre ratas machos (M, n=8), hembras en las fases ovulatorias (OV, n=8) o no ovulatorias (NOV, n=8) del ciclo estral y ooforectomizadas (OS, n=8). Métodos: La evaluación del consumo de oxígeno fue realizada en cinta rodante con caja metabólica acoplada. Resultados: En reposo, el VO2 fue semejante entre los grupos estudiados. El grupo M presentó mayor VO2max en relación al grupo NOV, pero valores semejantes a los del grupo OV. El VO2max fue menor en el grupo ooforectomizado (OS: 62±3 ml.kg-1.min-1) cuando comparado a los demás grupos (MS: 92±2; NOV: 77±4; OV: 87±3 ml.kg-1.min-1). Conclusiones: Esos hallazgos evidencian que la variación hormonal proveniente de las diferentes fases del ciclo estral y de la privación de las hormonas ováricas puede inducir alteraciones en el consumo máximo de oxígeno en ratas. .

Impacto do envelhecimento nas disfunções metabólicas e cardiovasculares em modelo experimental de menopausa / Impact of aging on metabolic and cardiovascular dysfunctions in an experimental model of menopause

Fundamentos: O envelhecimento e a privação dos hormônios ovarianos são associados ao aumento do risco cardiovascular. Objetivo: Investigar os efeitos do envelhecimento em parâmetros metabólicos e cardiovasculares em ratas submetidas à privação dos hormônios ovarianos. Métodos: Foram utilizadas 16 ratas adultas e 16 ratas velhas Wistar estratificadas em quatro grupos (n=8 emcada grupo): adultas-controle (CS); adultas ooforectomizadas (OS); velhas-controle (VC); e velhas ooforectomizadas (VOS). Ooforectomia realizada com retirada bilateral dos ovários. Pressão arterial (PA)avaliada pelo registro direto. Sensibilidade barorreflexa(SBR) avaliada pelas respostas taquicárdicas (RT) e bradicárdicas (RB). Resultados: O peso corporal foi maior nos grupos OS,VC e VOS em relação ao grupo CS. Os triglicerídeos sanguíneos foram maiores nos grupos VC e VOS quando comparados ao grupo CS. O envelhecimento induziu aumento da PA diastólica. Houve aumento da PA médiano grupo OS (124,0±1,3mmHg) em relação ao grupo CS(110,0±2,8mmHg). O grupo VOS (130,0±5,1mmHg)apresentou valores maiores de PA média quando comparado aos grupos CS e VC (116,0±2,5mmHg), além de aumento adicional da PA sistólica em relação ao grupo OS. A SBR se apresentou atenuada nos grupos OS e VC em relação ao grupo CS. Nas RB e RT houve prejuízo adicional no grupo VOS (-0,68±0,06 e-1,07±0,12bpm/mmHg) quando comparado ao grupo OS(-1,10±0,11 e -2,09±0,19bpm/mmHg). Conclusão: O envelhecimento em ratas induziu prejuízo metabólico e aumento da PA associado à redução da SBR. A privação dos hormônios ovarianos em ratas adultas promoveu prejuízo cardiovascular e na SBR, os quaisforam exacerbados pelo envelhecimento.

Background: Aging and ovarian hormone deprivationare associated with increased cardiovascular risk.Objective: Investigate the effects of aging on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters in female rats submitted to ovarian hormone deprivation.Methods: 16 adult female Wistar rats and 16 aged Wistar rats were divided into four groups (n= 8 in eachgroup): adult control (CS) and ovariectomized (OS);aged control (VC) and aged ovariectomized (VOS).Ovariectomy was performed by bilateral ovaryremoval. Blood pressure (BP) was evaluated by direct recording. The baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) was evaluated by tachycardic (RT) and bradycardic (RB)responses. Results: Body weight was higher in aged rats (OS, VCand VOS) compared to the CS group. Blood triglycerides were higher in VC and VOS groups compared to theCS group. The diastolic AP was increased by aging.There was a mean AP increase in the OS group(124.0±1.3mmHg) compared to the CS group(110.0±2.8mmHg). The VOS group (130.0±5.1mmHg)presented an increased mean AP compared to the CS and VC (116.0±2.5mmHg) groups, with an additional systolic AP increase as compared to OS group. The BRS was impaired in OS and VC groups compared to the CS group. There were additional impairments in the BR and TR in the VOS group (-0.68±0.06 and-1.07±0.12bpm/mmHg) compared to the OS group(-1.10±0.11 and -2.09±0.19bpm/mmHg). Conclusion: Aging in rats induced metabolic impairment and AP increase associated with reduced BRS. Ovarian hormone deprivation in adult rats resulted in cardiovascular and SBR impairments, with these changes exacerbated by aging.