Differences in mid-gestational and early postnatal neonatal cytokines and chemokines are associated with patterns of maternal autoantibodies in the context of autism.

Associations between maternal immune dysregulation (including autoimmunity and skewed cytokine/chemokine profiles) and offspring neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism have been reported. In maternal autoantibody-related autism, specific maternally derived autoantibodies can access the fetal compartment to target eight proteins critical for neurodevelopment. We examined the relationship between maternal autoantibodies to the eight maternal autoantibody-related autism proteins and cytokine/chemokine profiles in the second trimester of pregnancy in mothers of children later diagnosed with autism and their neonates' cytokine/chemokine profiles. Using banked maternal serum samples from 15 to 19 weeks of gestation from the Early Markers for Autism Study and corresponding banked newborn bloodspots, we identified three maternal/offspring groups based on maternal autoantibody status: (1) mothers with autoantibodies to one or more of the eight maternal autoantibody-related autismassociated proteins but not a maternal autoantibody-related autism-specific pattern, (2) mothers with a known maternal autoantibody-related autism pattern, and (3) mothers without autoantibodies to any of the eight maternal autoantibody-related autism proteins. Using a multiplex platform, we measured maternal second trimester and neonatal cytokine/chemokine levels. This combined analysis aimed to determine potential associations between maternal autoantibodies and the maternal and neonatal cytokine/chemokine profiles, each of which has been shown to have implications on offspring neurodevelopment independently.

A Mixture of Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations During Pregnancy and Offspring Social Responsiveness Scale Scores.

BACKGROUND: Phthalates are a group of chemicals with ubiquitous exposure worldwide. Exposures to phthalates during pregnancy may play a role in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) etiology by disrupting hormone levels or directly impacting fetal neurodevelopment. However, there is little research quantifying the aggregate effect of phthalates on child ASD-related behaviors. METHODS: We used data from two prospective pregnancy and birth cohorts-the Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment (HOME) and the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI). HOME is a general population cohort while participants in EARLI were at higher familial risk for ASD. Using quantile g-computation and linear regression models, we assessed the joint and individual associations of a mixture of six phthalate metabolites during pregnancy with child ASD-related traits measured by Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) scores at ages 3-8 years. RESULTS: Our analyses included 271 participants from HOME and 166 participants from EARLI. There were imprecise associations between the phthalate mixture and SRS total raw scores in HOME (difference in SRS scores per decile increase in every phthalate = 1.3; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.2, 2.8) and EARLI (difference in SRS scores per decile increase in every phthalate = -0.9; 95% CI = -3.5, 1.7). CONCLUSIONS: The cohort-specific effect sizes of the pthalates-SRS associations were small and CIs were imprecise. These results suggest that if there are associations between phthalate metabolites during pregnancy and child SRS scores, they may differ across populations with different familial liabilities. Further studies with larger sample sizes are warranted.

Epigenetic changes in sperm are associated with paternal and child quantitative autistic traits in an autism-enriched cohort.

There is a need to consider paternal contributions to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) more strongly. Autism etiology is complex, and heritability is not explained by genetics alone. Understanding paternal gametic epigenetic contributions to autism could help fill this knowledge gap. In the present study, we explored whether paternal autistic traits, and the sperm epigenome, were associated with autistic traits in children at 36 months enrolled in the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI) cohort. EARLI is a pregnancy cohort that recruited and enrolled pregnant women in the first half of pregnancy who already had a child with ASD. After maternal enrollment, EARLI fathers were approached and asked to provide a semen specimen. Participants were included in the present study if they had genotyping, sperm methylation data, and Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) score data available. Using the CHARM array, we performed genome-scale methylation analyses on DNA from semen samples contributed by EARLI fathers. The SRS-a 65-item questionnaire measuring social communication deficits on a quantitative scale-was used to evaluate autistic traits in EARLI fathers (n = 45) and children (n = 31). We identified 94 significant child SRS-associated differentially methylated regions (DMRs), and 14 significant paternal SRS-associated DMRs (fwer p < 0.05). Many child SRS-associated DMRs were annotated to genes implicated in ASD and neurodevelopment. Six DMRs overlapped across the two outcomes (fwer p < 0.1), and, 16 DMRs overlapped with previous child autistic trait findings at 12 months of age (fwer p < 0.05). Child SRS-associated DMRs contained CpG sites independently found to be differentially methylated in postmortem brains of individuals with and without autism. These findings suggest paternal germline methylation is associated with autistic traits in 3-year-old offspring. These prospective results for autism-associated traits, in a cohort with a family history of ASD, highlight the potential importance of sperm epigenetic mechanisms in autism.

Reproductive healthcare in adolescents with autism and other developmental disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Adults with developmental disabilities often have less access to reproductive health services than adults without these disabilities. However, little is known about how adolescents with developmental disabilities, including autism, access reproductive healthcare. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to characterize the use of reproductive healthcare services among adolescents with autism and those with other developmental disabilities in comparison with adolescents with typical development. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cohort study of a sample of adolescents who were continuously enrolled members of Kaiser Permanente Northern California, an integrated healthcare system, from ages 14 to 18 years. The final analytical sample included 700 adolescents with autism, 836 adolescents with other developmental disabilities, and 2187 typically developing adolescents who sought care between 2000 and 2017. Using the electronic health record, we obtained information on menstrual conditions, the use of obstetrical-gynecologic care, and prescriptions of hormonal contraception. We compared healthcare use between the groups using chi-square tests and covariate-adjusted risk ratios estimated using modified Poisson regression. RESULTS: Adolescents with autism and those with other developmental disabilities were significantly more likely to have diagnoses of menstrual disorders, polycystic ovary syndrome, and premenstrual syndrome than typically developing adolescents. These 2 groups also were less likely than typically developing peers to visit the obstetrician-gynecologist or to use any form of hormonal contraception, including oral contraception, hormonal implants, and intrauterine devices. Adolescents in all 3 groups accessed hormonal contraception most frequently through their primary care provider, followed by an obstetrician-gynecologist. CONCLUSION: Adolescents with autism and those with other developmental disabilities are less likely than their typically developing peers to visit the obstetrician-gynecologist and to use hormonal contraception, suggesting possible care disparities that may persist into adulthood. Efforts to improve access to reproductive healthcare in these populations should target care delivered in both the pediatric and obstetrics-gynecology settings.

The influence of loss to follow-up in autism screening research: Taking stock and moving forward.

BACKGROUND: How best to improve the early detection of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is the subject of significant controversy. Some argue that universal ASD screeners are highly accurate, whereas others argue that evidence for this claim is insufficient. Relatedly, there is no clear consensus as to the optimal role of screening for making referral decisions for evaluation and treatment. Published screening research can meaningfully inform these questions-but only through careful consideration of children who do not complete diagnostic follow-up. METHODS: We developed two simulation models that re-analyze the results of a large-scale validation study of the M-CHAT-R/F by Robins et al. (2014, Pediatrics, 133, 37). Model #1 re-analyzes screener accuracy across six scenarios, each reflecting different assumptions regarding loss to follow-up. Model #2 builds on this by closely examining differential attrition at each point of the multi-step detection process. RESULTS: Estimates of sensitivity ranged from 40% to 94% across scenarios, demonstrating that estimates of accuracy depend on assumptions regarding the diagnostic status of children who were lost to follow-up. Across a range of plausible assumptions, data also suggest that children with undiagnosed ASD may be more likely to complete follow-up than children without ASD, highlighting the role of clinicians and caregivers in the detection process. CONCLUSIONS: Using simulation modeling as a quantitative method to examine potential bias in screening studies, analyses suggest that ASD screening tools may be less accurate than is often reported. Models also demonstrate the critical importance of every step in a detection process-including steps that determine whether children should complete an additional evaluation. We conclude that parent and clinician decision-making regarding follow-up may contribute more to detection than is widely assumed.

Exposure to heavy metals in utero and autism spectrum disorder at age 3: a meta-analysis of two longitudinal cohorts of siblings of children with autism.

BACKGROUND: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a prevalent and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder. Risk is attributed to genetic and prenatal environmental factors, though the environmental agents are incompletely characterized. METHODS: In Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI) and Markers of Autism Risk in Babies Learning Early Signs (MARBLES), two pregnancy cohorts of siblings of children with ASD, urinary metals concentrations during two pregnancy time periods (< 28 weeks and ≥ 28 weeks of gestation) were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. At age three, clinicians assessed ASD with DSM-5 criteria. In an exposure-wide association framework, using multivariable log binomial regression, we examined each metal for association with ASD status, adjusting for gestational age at urine sampling, child sex, age at pregnancy, race/ethnicity and education. We meta-analyzed across the two cohorts. RESULTS: In EARLI (n = 170) 17% of children were diagnosed with ASD, and 44% were classified as having non-neurotypical development (Non-TD). In MARBLES (n = 231), 21% were diagnosed with ASD, and 14% classified as Non-TD. During the first and second trimester period (< 28 weeks), having cadmium concentration over the level of detection was associated with 1.69 (1.08, 2.64) times higher risk of ASD, and 1.29 (0.95, 1.75)times higher risk of Non-TD. A doubling of first and second trimester cesium concentration was marginally associated with 1.89 (0.94, 3.80) times higher risk of ASD, and a doubling of third trimester cesium with 1.69 (0.97, 2.95) times higher risk of ASD. CONCLUSION: Exposure in utero to elevated levels of cadmium and cesium, as measured in urine collected during pregnancy, was associated with increased risk of developing ASD.

Latent Class Analysis of Prenatal Substance Exposure and Child Behavioral Outcomes.

OBJECTIVES: To predict behavioral disruptions in middle childhood, we identified latent classes of prenatal substance use. STUDY DESIGN: As part of the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes Program, we harmonized prenatal substance use data and child behavior outcomes from 2195 women and their 6- to 11-year-old children across 10 cohorts in the US and used latent class-adjusted regression models to predict parent-rated child behavior. RESULTS: Three latent classes fit the data: low use (90.5%; n = 1986), primarily using no substances; licit use (6.6%; n = 145), mainly using nicotine with a moderate likelihood of using alcohol and marijuana; and illicit use (2.9%; n = 64), predominantly using illicit substances along with a moderate likelihood of using licit substances. Children exposed to primarily licit substances in utero had greater levels of externalizing behavior than children exposed to low or no substances (P = .001, d = .64). Children exposed to illicit substances in utero showed small but significant elevations in internalizing behavior than children exposed to low or no substances (P < .001, d = .16). CONCLUSIONS: The differences in prenatal polysubstance use may increase risk for specific childhood problem behaviors; however, child outcomes appeared comparably adverse for both licit and illicit polysubstance exposure. We highlight the need for similar multicohort, large-scale studies to examine childhood outcomes based on prenatal substance use profiles.

Prenatal Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Childhood Autism-related Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic evidence linking prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) with altered neurodevelopment is inconclusive, and few large studies have focused on autism-related outcomes. We investigated whether blood concentrations of PFAS in pregnancy are associated with child autism-related outcomes. METHODS: We included 10 cohorts from the National Institutes of Health (NIH)-funded Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program (n = 1,429). We measured 14 PFAS analytes in maternal blood collected during pregnancy; eight analytes met detection criteria for analysis. We assessed quantitative autism-related traits in children via parent report on the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). In multivariable linear models, we examined relationships of each PFAS (natural log-transformed) with SRS scores. We further modeled PFAS as a complex mixture using Bayesian methods and examined modification of these relationships by child sex. RESULTS: Most PFAS in maternal blood were not associated with child SRS T-scores. Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) showed the strongest and most consistent association: each 1-unit increase in ln-transformed PFNA was associated with greater autism-related traits (adjusted ß [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 1.5 [-0.1, 3.0]). The summed mixture, which included six PFAS detected in >70% of participants, was not associated with SRS T-scores (adjusted ß [95% highest posterior density interval] = 0.7 [-1.4, 3.0]). We did not observe consistent evidence of sex differences. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal blood concentrations of PFNA may be associated with modest increases in child autism-related traits. Future work should continue to examine the relationship between exposures to both legacy and emerging PFAS and additional dimensional, quantitative measures of childhood autism-related outcomes.

Neonatal immune signatures differ by sex regardless of neurodevelopmental disorder status: Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) alone reveals a sex by diagnosis interaction effect.

Immune dysregulation, including aberrant peripheral cytokine/chemokine levels, is implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). While the diagnosis of ASD is more common in males compared to females, sex effects in immune dysregulation related to neurodevelopment remain understudied. The aim of this exploratory study was to determine whether there are sex-specific effects in neonatal immune dysregulation with respect to an ASD or delayed development (DD) diagnosis. We utilized the data from the Early Markers for Autism study, a population based case-control study of prenatal and neonatal biomarkers of ASD. The immune profile of newborns later diagnosed with ASD (n = 482, 91 females), DD (n = 140, 61 females) and sex-matched general population controls (GP; n = 378, 67 females) were analyzed using neonatal bloodspots (NBS) via 42-plex multiplex assay. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to identify whether sex was associated with differences in cytokine/chemokine levels of children with ASD, DD, and GP. A sex by diagnosis interaction effect was observed only for the chemokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), with males displaying higher levels of NBS MIF than females in the GP control group (p = 0.02), but not in ASD (p = 0.52) or DD (p = 0.29) groups. We found that regardless of child diagnosis, newborn bloodspot eluates from females had a significantly higher concentration than males with the same diagnosis of the chemokines granulocyte chemotactic protein 2 (GCP-2; p < 0.0001), macrophage inflammatory protein 2-alpha (GROß; p = 0.002), interferon-inducible t-cell alpha chemoattractant (I-TAC; p < 0.0001), stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha and beta (SDF-1α-ß; p = 0.03), innate inflammatory chemokines interferon-gamma induced protein 10 (IP-10; p = 0.02), macrophage inflammatory protein 1-alpha (MIP-1α; p = 0.02), and Th1-related pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-12 active heterodimer (IL-12p70; p = 0.002). In contrast, males had a higher concentration than females of secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine (6CKINE; p = 0.02), monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1; p = 0.005) and myeloid progenitor inhibitory factor 1 (MPIF-1; p = 0.03). Results were similar when analyses were restricted to NBS from DD and ASD further classified as ASD with intellectual disability (ID), ASD without ID, and DD (GCP-2, p = 0.007; I-TAC, p = 0.001; IP-10, p = 0.005; IL-12p70, p = 0.03 higher in females; MPIF-1, p = 0.03 higher in male). This study is the first to examine sex differences in neonatal cytokine/chemokine concentrations, and whether these differences are associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes. Results highlight the importance of considering sex as a critical factor in understanding the immune system as it relates to child development.

Maternal autoantibody profiles as biomarkers for ASD and ASD with co-occurring intellectual disability.

Maternal autoantibody-related ASD (MAR ASD) is a subtype of autism in which pathogenic maternal autoantibodies (IgG) cross the placenta, access the developing brain, and cause neurodevelopmental alterations and behaviors associated with autism in the exposed offspring. We previously reported maternal IgG response to eight proteins (CRMP1, CRMP2, GDA LDHA, LDHB, NSE, STIP1, and YBOX) and that reactivity to nine specific combinations of these proteins (MAR ASD patterns) was predictive of ASD risk. The aim of the current study was to validate the previously identified MAR ASD patterns (CRMP1 + GDA, CRMP1 + CRMP2, NSE + STIP1, CRMP2 + STIP1, LDHA + YBOX, LDHB + YBOX, GDA + YBOX, STIP1 + YBOX, and CRMP1 + STIP1) and their accuracy in predicting ASD risk in a prospective cohort employing maternal samples collected prior to parturition. We used prenatal plasma from mothers of autistic children with or without co-occurring intellectual disability (ASD = 540), intellectual disability without autism (ID = 184) and general population controls (GP = 420) collected by the Early Markers for Autism (EMA) study. We found reactivity to one or more of the nine previously identified MAR ASD patterns in 10% of the ASD group compared with 4% of the ID group and 1% of the GP controls (ASD vs GP: Odds Ratio (OR) = 7.81, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 3.32 to 22.43; ASD vs ID: OR = 2.77, 95% CI (1.19-7.47)) demonstrating that the MAR ASD patterns are strongly associated with the ASD group and could be used to assess ASD risk prior to symptom onset. The pattern most strongly associated with ASD was CRMP1 + CRMP2 and increased the odds for an ASD diagnosis 16-fold (3.32 to >999.99). In addition, we found that several of these specific MAR ASD patterns were strongly associated with ASD with intellectual disability (ASD + ID) and others associated with ASD without ID (ASD-no ID). Prenatal screening for these MAR patterns may lead to earlier identification of ASD and facilitate access to the appropriate early intervention services based on each child's needs.

Association between maternal prenatal cannabis use and missed child preventive care visits in an integrated health care delivery system in Northern California.

The periodicity of well-child visits recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes the importance of continuity of care in health management. Exposure to cannabis in utero has been associated with adverse development, and adherence to well-child visits is critical for earlier detection and intervention. To assess whether maternal prenatal cannabis use was associated with missed well-child visits in the first three years after birth we conducted a longitudinal cohort study in Kaiser Permanente Northern California of pregnant individuals and their children born between January 1, 2011 and December 31, 2018. Maternal prenatal cannabis use was defined as any self-reported cannabis use since becoming pregnant and/or a positive urine toxicology test for cannabis during pregnancy. Well-child visits were defined as an encounter for a well-child visit or physical exam and categorized into seven time periods from birth to 36 months. Modified Poisson regression models were conducted. Of the 168,589 eligible pregnancies, 3.4% screened positive for maternal prenatal cannabis use. Compared to no use, maternal prenatal cannabis use was associated with more missed well-child visits at every time period; (missed 12-month visit: adjusted relative risk (aRR): 1.43, 95%CI: 1.32-1.54; missed 3-year visit: aRR: 1.15, 95%CI: 1.11-1.20). Maternal prenatal cannabis use was also associated with missing two or more well-child visits through 36 months of age (35.8% among cannabis users vs. 23.0% among non-users, Χ2p < .001). Educating pregnant individuals who use cannabis on the importance of well-child visits may benefit children's health and development.

Prenatal ultrasound use and risk of autism spectrum disorder: Findings from the case-control Study to Explore Early Development.

BACKGROUND: Studies evaluating the association between prenatal ultrasounds and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have largely produced negative results. Concern remains due to the rising identification of children with ASD and ultrasound use. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between prenatal ultrasound use and ASD. METHODS: We used data from the Study to Explore Early Development, a multisite case-control study of preschool-aged children with ASD implemented during 2007-2012. We recruited cases from children receiving developmental disability services and randomly selected population controls from birth records. ASD case status was based on in-person standardised assessments. We stratified analyses by pre-existing maternal medical conditions and pregnancy complications associated with increased ultrasound use (ultrasound indications) and used logistic regression to model case status by increasing ultrasound counts. For pregnancies with medical record data on ultrasound timing, we conducted supplementary tests to model associations by trimester of exposure. RESULTS: Among 1524 singleton pregnancies, ultrasound indications were more common for ASD cases than controls; respectively, for each group, no indications were reported for 45.1% and 54.2% of pregnancies, while ≥2 indications were reported for 26.1% and 18.4% of pregnancies. The percentage of pregnancies with multiple ultrasounds varied by case status and the presence of ultrasound indications. However, stratified regression models showed no association between increasing ultrasound counts and case status, either for pregnancies without (aOR 1.01, 95% CI 0.92, 1.11) or with ultrasound indications (aOR 1.01, 95% CI 0.95, 1.08). Trimester-specific analyses using medical record data showed no association in any individual trimester. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that prenatal ultrasound use increases ASD risk. Study strengths included gold-standard assessments for ASD case classification, comparison of cases with controls, and a stratified sample to account for conditions associated both with increased prenatal ultrasound use and ASD.

Associations of prenatal exposure to a mixture of persistent organic pollutants with social traits and cognitive and adaptive function in early childhood: Findings from the EARLI study.

BACKGROUND: Literature suggests that maternal exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may influence child neurodevelopment. Evidence linking prenatal POPs and autism spectrum disorder has been inconclusive and few studies have examined the mixture effect of the POPs on autism-related traits. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the associations between prenatal exposure to a mixture of POPs and autism-related traits in children from the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation study. METHODS: Maternal serum concentrations of 17 POPs (11 polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs], 4 polybrominated diphenyls [PBDEs], and 2 persistent pesticides) in 154 samples collected during pregnancy were included in this analysis. We examined the independent associations of the natural log-transformed POPs with social, cognitive, and behavioral traits at 36 months of age, including Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), Mullen Scales of Early Learning-Early Learning Composite (MSEL-ELC), and Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) scores, using linear regression models. We applied Bayesian kernel machine regression and quantile g-computation to examine the joint effect and interactions of the POPs. RESULTS: Higher ln-PBDE47 was associated with greater deficits in social reciprocity (higher SRS score) (ß = 6.39, 95% CI: 1.12, 11.65) whereas higher ln-p,p'-DDE was associated with lower social deficits (ß = -8.34, 95% CI: -15.32, -1.37). Positive associations were observed between PCB180 and PCB187 and cognitive (MSEL-ELC) scores (ß = 5.68, 95% CI: 0.18, 11.17; ß = 4.65, 95% CI: 0.14, 9.17, respectively). Adaptive functioning (VABS) scores were positively associated with PCB170, PCB180, PCB187, PCB196/203, and p,p'-DDE. In the mixture analyses, we did not observe an overall mixture effect of POPs on the quantitative traits. Potential interactions between PBDE99 and other PBDEs were identified in association with MSEL-ELC scores. CONCLUSIONS: We observed independent effects of PCB180, PCB187, PBDE47, and p,p' DDE with ASD-related quantitative traits and potential interactions between PBDEs. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing the effect of POPs as a mixture.

Modifying the social responsiveness scale for adaptive administration.

PURPOSE: The social responsiveness scale (SRS) is frequently used to quantify the autism-related phenotype and is gaining use in health outcomes research. However, it has a high respondent burden (65 items) for large-scale studies. Further, most evaluations of it have focused on the school-age form, not the preschool form. More validity evidence of shortened forms is necessary in the general population to support the broader health outcomes context of use. METHODS: We evaluated the psychometrics of the SRS in 7030 individuals from multiple predominantly neurotypical samples in order to shorten it based on non-autistic sample metrics. Analyses included item factor analysis, differential item functioning (DIF), and multiple-group item response theory (IRT) to place the SRS items on a comparable scale, which was then simulated via computer adaptive testing (CAT) administration. RESULTS: The SRS was broadly unidimensional with few methodological residual dependencies. On average, males had more autistic characteristics than females, and preschoolers had fewer characteristics than school-age children. The final IRT calibration included 45 items equated across forms, and each form had 11 with significant wording discrepancies and 9 items with near-identical wording that exhibited form-related DIF. The CAT simulation suggested a median of 14 items was sufficient to reach a reliable score, demonstrating its feasibility across the range of impairments. CONCLUSION: IRT allows practitioners the ability to get highly reliable scores with fewer items than the full-length SRS. This supports the future application of the SRS in a computer adaptive testing mode in both neurotypical and ASD samples.

A framework for measuring the cost to families of caring for children's health: the design, methodology, and study population of the r-Kids study.

BACKGROUND: All families experience financial and time costs related to caring for their children's health. Understanding the economic burden faced by families of children with chronic health conditions (CHC) is crucial for designing effective policies to support families. METHODS: In this prospective study we used electronic health records to identify children between 3 and 17 years old with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), asthma, or neither (control) from three Kaiser Permanente regions and several community health centers in the OCHIN network. We oversampled children from racial and ethnic minority groups. Parent/guardian respondents completed surveys three times, approximately four months apart. The surveys included the Family Economic Impact Inventory (measuring financial, time, and employment costs of caring for a child's health), and standardized measures of children's quality of life, behavioral problems, and symptom severity for children with ASD or asthma. We also assessed parenting stress and parent physical and mental health. All materials were provided in English and Spanish. RESULTS: Of the 1,461 families that enrolled (564 ASD, 468 asthma, 429 control), children were predominantly male (79%), with a mean age of 9.0 years, and racially and ethnically diverse (43% non-Hispanic white; 22% Hispanic; 35% Asian, Black, Native Hawaiian, or another race/ethnicity). The majority of survey respondents were female (86%), had a college degree (62%), and were married/partnered (79%). ASD group respondents were less likely to be employed (73%) than those in the asthma or control groups (both 80%; p = .023). Only 32% of the control group reported a household income ≤ $4,000/month compared with 41% of asthma and 38% of ASD families (p = .006). CONCLUSIONS: Utilizing a novel measure assessing family economic burden, we successfully collected survey responses from a large and diverse sample of families. Drawing upon the conceptual framework, survey measures, and self-report data described herein we will conduct future analyses to examine the economic burdens related to CHC and the incremental differences in these burdens between health groups. This information will help policy makers to design more equitable health and social policies that could reduce the burden on families.

Cardiometabolic Pregnancy Complications in Association With Autism-Related Traits as Measured by the Social Responsiveness Scale in ECHO.

Prior work has examined associations between cardiometabolic pregnancy complications and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) but not how these complications may relate to social communication traits more broadly. We addressed this question within the Environmental Influences on Child Health Outcomes program, with 6,778 participants from 40 cohorts conducted from 1998-2021 with information on ASD-related traits via the Social Responsiveness Scale. Four metabolic pregnancy complications were examined individually, and combined, in association with Social Responsiveness Scale scores, using crude and adjusted linear regression as well as quantile regression analyses. We also examined associations stratified by ASD diagnosis, and potential mediation by preterm birth and low birth weight, and modification by child sex and enriched risk of ASD. Increases in ASD-related traits were associated with obesity (ß = 4.64, 95% confidence interval: 3.27, 6.01) and gestational diabetes (ß = 5.21, 95% confidence interval: 2.41, 8.02), specifically, but not with hypertension or preeclampsia. Results among children without ASD were similar to main analyses, but weaker among ASD cases. There was not strong evidence for mediation or modification. Results suggest that common cardiometabolic pregnancy complications may influence child ASD-related traits, not only above a diagnostic threshold relevant to ASD but also across the population.

Placental morphology in association with autism-related traits in the EARLI study.

BACKGROUND: In prior work we observed differences in morphology features in placentas from an autism-enriched cohort as compared to those from a general population sample. Here we sought to examine whether these differences associate with ASD-related outcomes in the child. METHODS: Participants (n = 101) were drawn from the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI), a cohort following younger siblings of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD-related outcomes, including the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL) Early Learning Composite, and ASD diagnosis, were assessed at age 3. Crude and adjusted linear regression was used to examine associations between placental morphological features (parametrized continuously and in quartiles) and SRS and MSEL scores; comparisons by ASD case status were explored as secondary analyses due to the small number of cases (n = 20). RESULTS: In adjusted analyses, we observed a modest positive association between umbilical cord eccentricity, defined as the ratio of the maximum:minimum radius from the cord insertion point, and SRS scores (Beta = 1.68, 95%CI = 0.45, 2.9). Positive associations were also suggested between placental maximum thickness and cord centrality and SRS scores, though these were estimated with little precision. Associations between other placental morphological features and outcomes were not observed. CONCLUSIONS: Our analyses suggested a potential association between umbilical cord features and ASD-related traits, of interest as non-central cord insertion may reflect reduced placenta efficiency. Future studies with larger sample sizes are needed to further examine these and other placental features in association with ASD-related outcomes.

Prenatal air pollution exposure and neurodevelopment: A review and blueprint for a harmonized approach within ECHO.

BACKGROUND: Air pollution exposure is ubiquitous with demonstrated effects on morbidity and mortality. A growing literature suggests that prenatal air pollution exposure impacts neurodevelopment. We posit that the Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) program will provide unique opportunities to fill critical knowledge gaps given the wide spatial and temporal variability of ECHO participants. OBJECTIVES: We briefly describe current methods for air pollution exposure assessment, summarize existing studies of air pollution and neurodevelopment, and synthesize this information as a basis for recommendations, or a blueprint, for evaluating air pollution effects on neurodevelopmental outcomes in ECHO. METHODS: We review peer-reviewed literature on prenatal air pollution exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes, including autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, intelligence, general cognition, mood, and imaging measures. ECHO meta-data were compiled and evaluated to assess frequency of neurodevelopmental assessments and prenatal and infancy residential address locations. Cohort recruitment locations and enrollment years were summarized to examine potential spatial and temporal variation present in ECHO. DISCUSSION: While the literature provides compelling evidence that prenatal air pollution affects neurodevelopment, limitations in spatial and temporal exposure variation exist for current published studies. As >90% of the ECHO cohorts have collected a prenatal or infancy address, application of advanced geographic information systems-based models for common air pollutant exposures may be ideal to address limitations of published research. CONCLUSIONS: In ECHO we have the opportunity to pioneer unifying exposure assessment and evaluate effects across multiple periods of development and neurodevelopmental outcomes, setting the standard for evaluation of prenatal air pollution exposures with the goal of improving children's health.

Early Life Exposure to Air Pollution and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Findings from a Multisite Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic studies have reported associations between prenatal and early postnatal air pollution exposure and autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, findings differ by pollutant and developmental window. OBJECTIVES: We examined associations between early life exposure to particulate matter ≤2.5 µm in diameter (PM2.5) and ozone in association with ASD across multiple US regions. METHODS: Our study participants included 674 children with confirmed ASD and 855 population controls from the Study to Explore Early Development, a multi-site case-control study of children born from 2003 to 2006 in the United States. We used a satellite-based model to assign air pollutant exposure averages during several critical periods of neurodevelopment: 3 months before pregnancy; each trimester of pregnancy; the entire pregnancy; and the first year of life. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), adjusting for study site, maternal age, maternal education, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal smoking, and month and year of birth. RESULTS: The air pollution-ASD associations appeared to vary by exposure time period. Ozone exposure during the third trimester was associated with ASD, with an OR of 1.2 (95% CI: 1.1, 1.4) per 6.6 ppb increase in ozone. We additionally observed a positive association with PM2.5 exposure during the first year of life (OR = 1.3 [95% CI: 1.0, 1.6] per 1.6 µg/m increase in PM2.5). CONCLUSIONS: Our study corroborates previous findings of a positive association between early life air pollution exposure and ASD, and identifies a potential critical window of exposure during the late prenatal and early postnatal periods.

Correction: Pleiotropic Mechanisms Indicated for Sex Differences in Autism.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006425.].