The chemical ecology of cecidomyiid midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae).

The family of cecidomyiid midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) exhibits diversified patterns of life history, behavior, host range, population dynamics and other ecological traits. Those that feed on plants include many important agricultural pests; most cultivated plants are attacked by at least one midge species. Several features of the reproductive biology of cecidomyiid midges point to an important role for chemical communication, with this topic last reviewed comprehensively 12 years ago. Here, we review progress on identification of sex pheromones, chemicals involved in location of host plants, the neurophysiology of reception of volatile chemicals, and application of semiochemicals to management of pest species of cecidomyiid midges that has occurred during the last decade. We hope this review will stimulate and sustain further research in these fields.

(S)-2-acetoxy-5-undecanone, female sex pheromone of the raspberry cane midge, Resseliella theobaldi (Barnes).

The raspberry cane midge, Resseliella theobaldi, is a widespread pest of cultivated red raspberry in Europe. Pheromone-baited traps could provide a much-needed, accurate means to monitor the pest. Volatiles collected separately from virgin female and male midges were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) to reveal four female-specific components. In analyses by GC coupled to electroantennographic (EAG) recording from the antennae of a male midge, at least three of these components elicited responses. Based on its GC retention indices and mass spectrum, we propose that the major component is 2-acetoxy-5-undecanone and confirm this by synthesis of the racemic compound in seven steps and 63% yield from 4-pentenoic acid. The three minor components were each present at approximately 30% of the major component and were identified as 2-undecanone, (S)-2-acetoxyundecane, and (S)-2-undecanol by comparison of GC retention times and mass spectra with those of synthetic standards. GC analyses of the female-produced volatiles on an enantioselective column showed that only one enantiomer of 2-acetoxy-5-undecanone was present, and this was found to be the S-enantiomer by hydrolytic kinetic resolution of an epoxide intermediate in the synthesis and also by enantioselective hydrolysis of the racemic acetate with a lipase enzyme. The two enantiomers were also separated by high-performance liquid chromatography on an enantioselective column for field tests. In two field trapping tests, (S)-2-acetoxy-5-undecanone was highly attractive to male R. theobaldi; the R-enantiomer was not attractive. The racemic compound was just as attractive as the S-enantiomer, and addition of the three minor components in racemic form at two different loads did not affect catches. The pheromone could be dispensed from both rubber septa and polyethylene vials for at least 1 month under field conditions, but the former was preferred as it gave more uniform release. 2-Acetoxy-5-undecanone belongs to a new group of pheromone structures in the Cecidomyiidae, most others being mono- or diesters.

The virome of Drosophila suzukii, an invasive pest of soft fruit.

Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura) is one of the most damaging and costly pests to invade temperate horticultural regions in recent history. Conventional control of this pest is challenging, and an environmentally benign microbial biopesticide is highly desirable. A thorough exploration of the pathogens infecting this pest is not only the first step on the road to the development of an effective biopesticide, but also provides a valuable comparative dataset for the study of viruses in the model family Drosophilidae. Here we use a metatransciptomic approach to identify viruses infecting this fly in both its native (Japanese) and invasive (British and French) ranges. We describe eighteen new RNA viruses, including members of the Picornavirales, Mononegavirales, Bunyavirales, Chuviruses, Nodaviridae, Tombusviridae, Reoviridae, and Nidovirales, and discuss their phylogenetic relationships with previously known viruses. We also detect 18 previously described viruses of other Drosophila species that appear to be associated with D. suzukii in the wild.

Trapping Dasinuera mali (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in apples.

The midge Dasineura mali (Kieffer) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is a significant pest of apples (Malus spp.), and the recent identification of the female sex pheromone is enabling new direct control tactics to be considered. Direct control using male suppression will require knowledge of the frequency of multiple mating, dispersal and colonization rates, and the efficiency of male removal. Males were able to mate up to five times, with a mean of 2.7 times when presented in a 10 female-to-1 male group, designed to simulate male suppression. Male catch in response to the pheromone loading was curvilinear over 4 orders of magnitude from 3 microg to 30 mg on rubber septa. Trapping using a high-dose pheromone lure was combined with oil-based traps similar to the inexpensive New Zealand "Lynfield trap" used for tephritid surveillance, to test male suppression in young orchard blocks at 500 traps per ha. Monitoring traps indicated 96% lower catch in the treated plots compared with control plots, over 137 d. However, a lack of shoot tip infestation in both treated and untreated plots indicated limited colonization and prevented an assessment of potential population suppression. Furthermore, a contribution to these results from communication disruption cannot be ruled out. Replicated transects of frequency of infested shoots from a mature orchard across the adjacent young block confirmed that colonization by ovipositing females was essentially limited to the first 30 m.