A Sorghum F-Box Protein Induces an Oxidative Burst in the Defense Against Colletotrichum sublineola.

The hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen Colletotrichum sublineola is the causal agent of anthracnose in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), resulting in leaf blight, stalk rot, and head blight in susceptible genotypes, with yield losses of up to 50%. The development of anthracnose-resistant cultivars can reduce reliance on fungicides and provide a more sustainable and economical means for disease management. A previous genome-wide association study of the sorghum association panel identified the candidate resistance gene Sobic.005G172300 encoding an F-box protein. To better understand the role of this gene in the defense against C. sublineola, gene expression following infection with C. sublineola was monitored by RNA sequencing in seedlings of sorghum accession SC110, which harbored the resistance allele, and three accessions that harbored a susceptible allele. Only in SC110 did the expression of Sobic.005G172300 increase during the biotrophic phase of infection. Subsequent transcriptome analysis, gene co-expression networks, and gene regulatory networks of inoculated and mock-inoculated seedlings of resistant and susceptible accessions suggest that the increase in expression of Sobic.005G172300 induces an oxidative burst by lowering the concentration of ascorbic acid during the biotrophic phase of infection. Based on gene regulatory network analysis, the protein encoded by Sobic.005G172300 is proposed to target proteins involved in the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid for polyubiquitination through the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase, causing their degradation via the proteasome.

The Sigatoka Disease Complex Caused by Pseudocercospora spp. and Other Fungal Pathogens Associated with Musa spp. in Puerto Rico.

Bananas (Musa spp.) are among the world's most economically important staple food crops. The most important fungal leaf diseases of Musa spp. worldwide are caused by the Sigatoka disease complex, which comprise black Sigatoka (Pseudocercospora fijiensis), yellow Sigatoka (P. musae), and Eumusae leaf spot (P. eumusae). Considering the rapid spreading rate of black Sigatoka in Puerto Rico after its first observation in 2004, a disease survey was conducted from 2018 to 2020 to evaluate the Sigatoka disease complex on the island. Sixty-one leaf samples showing Sigatoka-like symptoms were collected throughout the island for diagnosis by molecular approaches and fungal isolation. Molecular analysis using species-specific primers for P. fijiensis, P. musae and P. eumusae detected the presence of P. fijiensis in fifty leaf samples. Thirty-eight fungal isolates were collected and identified by morphology and genomic sequencing from various nuclear genes. The analysis identified 24 isolates as P. fijiensis, while the rest of the isolates belonged to the genus Cladosporium spp. and Cladosporium-like spp. (n=5), Neocordana musae (n=2), Zasmidium spp. (n=6), and Z. musigenum (n=1). The high frequency of P. fijiensis found in leaf samples and collected isolates suggest that black Sigatoka has displaced the yellow Sigatoka (P. musae) in Puerto Rico. Accurate identification of fungal species causing foliar diseases in Musa spp. will allow the establishment of quarantine regulations and specific management approaches in Puerto Rico.

Sorghum genetic, genomic, and breeding resources.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Sorghum research has entered an exciting and fruitful era due to the genetic, genomic, and breeding resources that are now available to researchers and plant breeders. As the world faces the challenges of a rising population and a changing global climate, new agricultural solutions will need to be developed to address the food and fiber needs of the future. To that end, sorghum will be an invaluable crop species as it is a stress-resistant C4 plant that is well adapted for semi-arid and arid regions. Sorghum has already remained as a staple food crop in many parts of Africa and Asia and is critically important for animal feed and niche culinary applications in other regions, such as the United States. In addition, sorghum has begun to be developed into a promising feedstock for forage and bioenergy production. Due to this increasing demand for sorghum and its potential to address these needs, the continuous development of powerful community resources is required. These resources include vast collections of sorghum germplasm, high-quality reference genome sequences, sorghum association panels for genome-wide association studies of traits involved in food and bioenergy production, mutant populations for rapid discovery of causative genes for phenotypes relevant to sorghum improvement, gene expression atlas, and online databases that integrate all resources and provide the sorghum community with tools that can be used in breeding and genomic studies. Used in tandem, these valuable resources will ensure that the rate, quality, and collaborative potential of ongoing sorghum improvement efforts is able to rival that of other major crops.

Evaluation of genetic diversity, agronomic traits, and anthracnose resistance in the NPGS Sudan Sorghum Core collection.

BACKGROUND: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) sorghum core collection contains 3011 accessions randomly selected from 77 countries. Genomic and phenotypic characterization of this core collection is necessary to encourage and facilitate its utilization in breeding programs and to improve conservation efforts. In this study, we examined the genome sequences of 318 accessions belonging to the NPGS Sudan sorghum core set, and characterized their agronomic traits and anthracnose resistance response. RESULTS: We identified 183,144 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located within or in proximity of 25,124 annotated genes using the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach. The core collection was genetically highly diverse, with an average pairwise genetic distance of 0.76 among accessions. Population structure and cluster analysis revealed five ancestral populations within the Sudan core set, with moderate to high level of genetic differentiation. In total, 171 accessions (54%) were assigned to one of these populations, which covered 96% of the total genomic variation. Genome scan based on Tajima's D values revealed two populations under balancing selection. Phenotypic analysis showed differences in agronomic traits among the populations, suggesting that these populations belong to different ecogeographical regions. A total of 55 accessions were resistant to anthracnose; these accessions could represent multiple resistance sources. Genome-wide association study based on fixed and random model Circulating Probability (farmCPU) identified genomic regions associated with plant height, flowering time, panicle length and diameter, and anthracnose resistance response. Integrated analysis of the Sudan core set and sorghum association panel indicated that a large portion of the genetic variation in the Sudan core set might be present in breeding programs but remains unexploited within some clusters of accessions. CONCLUSIONS: The NPGS Sudan core collection comprises genetically and phenotypically diverse germplasm with multiple anthracnose resistance sources. Population genomic analysis could be used to improve screening efforts and identify the most valuable germplasm for breeding programs. The new GBS data set generated in this study represents a novel genomic resource for plant breeders interested in mining the genetic diversity of the NPGS sorghum collection.

Genomic characterization of a core set of the USDA-NPGS Ethiopian sorghum germplasm collection: implications for germplasm conservation, evaluation, and utilization in crop improvement.

BACKGROUND: The USDA Agriculture Research Service National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) preserves the largest sorghum germplasm collection in the world, which includes 7,217 accessions from the center of diversity in Ethiopia. The characterization of this exotic germplasm at a genome-wide scale will improve conservation efforts and its utilization in research and breeding programs. Therefore, we phenotyped a representative core set of 374 Ethiopian accessions at two locations for agronomic traits and characterized the genomes. RESULTS: Using genotyping-by-sequencing, we identified 148,476 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers distributed across the entire genome. Over half of the alleles were rare (frequency < 0.05). The genetic profile of each accession was unique (i.e., no duplicates), and the average genetic distance among accessions was 0.70. Based on population structure and cluster analyses, we separated the collection into 11 populations with pairwise F ST values ranging from 0.11 to 0.47. In total, 198 accessions (53%) were assigned to one of these populations with an ancestry membership coefficient of larger than 0.60; these covered 90% of the total genomic variation. We characterized these populations based on agronomic and seed compositional traits. We performed a cluster analysis with the sorghum association panel based on 26,026 SNPs and determined that nine of the Ethiopian populations expanded the genetic diversity in the panel. Genome-wide association analysis demonstrated that these low-coverage data and the observed population structure could be employed for the genomic dissection of important phenotypes in this core set of Ethiopian sorghum germplasm. CONCLUSIONS: The NPGS Ethiopian sorghum germplasm is a genetically and phenotypically diverse collection comprising 11 populations with high levels of admixture. Genetic associations with agronomic traits can be used to improve the screening of exotic germplasm for selection of specific populations. We detected many rare alleles, suggesting that this germplasm contains potentially useful undiscovered alleles, but their discovery and characterization will require extensive effort. The genotypic data available for these accessions provide a valuable resource for sorghum breeders and geneticists to effectively improve crops.

The Evolution of Photoperiod-Insensitive Flowering in Sorghum, A Genomic Model for Panicoid Grasses.

Of central importance in adapting plants of tropical origin to temperate cultivation has been selection of daylength-neutral genotypes that flower early in the temperate summer and take full advantage of its long days. A cross between tropical and temperate sorghums [Sorghum propinquum (Kunth) Hitchc.×S. bicolor (L.) Moench], revealed a quantitative trait locus (QTL), FlrAvgD1, accounting for 85.7% of variation in flowering time under long days. Fine-scale genetic mapping placed FlrAvgD1 on chromosome 6 within the physically largest centiMorgan in the genome. Forward genetic data from "converted" sorghums validated the QTL. Association genetic evidence from a diversity panel delineated the QTL to a 10-kb interval containing only one annotated gene, Sb06g012260, that was shown by reverse genetics to complement a recessive allele. Sb06g012260 (SbFT12) contains a phosphatidylethanolamine-binding (PEBP) protein domain characteristic of members of the "FT" family of flowering genes acting as a floral suppressor. Sb06g012260 appears to have evolved ∼40 Ma in a panicoid ancestor after divergence from oryzoid and pooid lineages. A species-specific Sb06g012260 mutation may have contributed to spread to temperate regions by S. halepense ("Johnsongrass"), one of the world's most widespread invasives. Alternative alleles for another family member, Sb02g029725 (SbFT6), mapping near another flowering QTL, also showed highly significant association with photoperiod response index (P = 1.53×10 (-) (6)). The evolution of Sb06g012260 adds to evidence that single gene duplicates play large roles in important environmental adaptations. Increased knowledge of Sb06g012260 opens new doors to improvement of sorghum and other grain and cellulosic biomass crops.

Seed shattering in a wild sorghum is conferred by a locus unrelated to domestication.

Suppression of seed shattering was a key step during crop domestication that we have previously suggested to be convergent among independent cereal lineages. Positional, association, expression, and mutant complementation data all implicate a WRKY transcription factor, SpWRKY, in conferring shattering to a wild sorghum relative, Sorghum propinquum. We hypothesize that SpWRKY functions in a manner analogous to Medicago and Arabidopsis homologs that regulate cell wall biosynthesis genes, with low expression toward the end of floral development derepressing downstream cell wall biosynthesis genes to allow deposition of lignin that initiates the abscission zone in the seed-pedicel junction. The recent discovery of a YABBY locus that confers shattering within Sorghum bicolor and other cereals validated our prior hypothesis that some parallel domestication may have been convergent. Ironically, however, the shattering allele of SpWRKY appears to be recently evolved in S. propinquum and illustrates a case in which the genetic control of a trait in a wild relative fails to extrapolate even to closely related crops. Remarkably, the SpWRKY and YABBY loci lie only 300 kb apart and may have appeared to be a single genetic locus in some sorghum populations.

Dual-RNA-sequencing to elucidate the interactions between sorghum and Colletotrichum sublineola.

In warm and humid regions, the productivity of sorghum is significantly limited by the fungal hemibiotrophic pathogen Colletotrichum sublineola, the causal agent of anthracnose, a problematic disease of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) that can result in grain and biomass yield losses of up to 50%. Despite available genomic resources of both the host and fungal pathogen, the molecular basis of sorghum-C. sublineola interactions are poorly understood. By employing a dual-RNA sequencing approach, the molecular crosstalk between sorghum and C. sublineola can be elucidated. In this study, we examined the transcriptomes of four resistant sorghum accessions from the sorghum association panel (SAP) at varying time points post-infection with C. sublineola. Approximately 0.3% and 93% of the reads mapped to the genomes of C. sublineola and Sorghum bicolor, respectively. Expression profiling of in vitro versus in planta C. sublineola at 1-, 3-, and 5-days post-infection (dpi) indicated that genes encoding secreted candidate effectors, carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes), and membrane transporters increased in expression during the transition from the biotrophic to the necrotrophic phase (3 dpi). The hallmark of the pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity in sorghum includes the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phytoalexins. The majority of effector candidates secreted by C. sublineola were predicted to be localized in the host apoplast, where they could interfere with the PAMP-triggered immunity response, specifically in the host ROS signaling pathway. The genes encoding critical molecular factors influencing pathogenicity identified in this study are a useful resource for subsequent genetic experiments aimed at validating their contributions to pathogen virulence. This comprehensive study not only provides a better understanding of the biology of C. sublineola but also supports the long-term goal of developing resistant sorghum cultivars.

Genetic dissection of morphological variation between cauliflower and a rapid cycling Brassica oleracea line.

To improve resolution to small genomic regions and sensitivity to small-effect loci in the identification of genetic factors conferring the enlarged inflorescence and other traits of cauliflower while also expediting further genetic dissection, 104 near-isogenic introgression lines (NIILs) covering 78.56% of the cauliflower genome, were selected from an advanced backcross population using cauliflower [Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L., mutant for Orange gene (ORG)] as the donor parent and a rapid cycling line (TO1434) as recurrent parent. Subsets of the advanced backcross population and NIILs were planted in the field for 8 seasons, finding 141 marker-trait associations for 15 leaf-, stem-, and flower-traits. Exemplifying the usefulness of these lines, we delineated the previously known flower color gene to a 4.5 MB interval on C3; a gene for small plant size to a 3.4 MB region on C8; and a gene for large plant size and flowering time to a 6.1 MB region on C9. This approach unmasked closely linked QTL alleles with opposing effects (on chr. 8) and revealed both alleles with expected phenotypic effects and effects opposite the parental phenotypes. Selected B. oleracea NIILs with short generation time add new value to widely used research and teaching materials.

Genetic diversity, population structure and anthracnose resistance response in a novel sweet sorghum diversity panel.

Sweet sorghum is an attractive feedstock for the production of renewable chemicals and fuels due to the readily available fermentable sugars that can be extracted from the juice, and the additional stream of fermentable sugars that can be obtained from the cell wall polysaccharides in the bagasse. An important selection criterion for new sweet sorghum germplasm is resistance to anthracnose, a disease caused by the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum sublineolum. The identification of novel anthracnose-resistance sources present in sweet sorghum germplasm offers a fast track towards the development of new resistant sweet sorghum germplasm. We established a sweet sorghum diversity panel (SWDP) of 272 accessions from the USDA-ARS National Plant Germplasm (NPGS) collection that includes landraces from 22 countries and advanced breeding material, and that represents ~15% of the NPGS sweet sorghum collection. Genomic characterization of the SWDP identified 171,954 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with an average of one SNP per 4,071 kb. Population structure analysis revealed that the SWDP could be stratified into four populations and one admixed group, and that this population structure could be aligned to sorghum's racial classification. Results from a two-year replicated trial of the SWDP for anthracnose resistance response in Texas, Georgia, Florida, and Puerto Rico showed 27 accessions to be resistant across locations, while 145 accessions showed variable resistance response against local pathotypes. A genome-wide association study identified 16 novel genomic regions associated with anthracnose resistance. Four resistance loci on chromosomes 3, 6, 8 and 9 were identified against pathotypes from Puerto Rico, and two resistance loci on chromosomes 3 and 8 against pathotypes from Texas. In Georgia and Florida, three resistance loci were detected on chromosomes 4, 5, 6 and four on chromosomes 4, 5 (two loci) and 7, respectively. One resistance locus on chromosome 2 was effective against pathotypes from Texas and Puerto Rico and a genomic region of 41.6 kb at the tip of chromosome 8 was associated with resistance response observed in Georgia, Texas, and Puerto Rico. This publicly available SWDP and the extensive evaluation of anthracnose resistance represent a valuable genomic resource for the improvement of sorghum.

Genetic Diversity and Classification of Colletotrichum sublineola Pathotypes Using a Standard Set of Sorghum Differentials.

Anthracnose, incited by Colletotrichum sublineola, is the most destructive foliar disease of sorghum and, under severe conditions, yield losses can exceed 80% on susceptible cultivars. The hyper-variable nature of the pathogen makes its management challenging despite the occurrence of several resistant sources. In this study, the genetic variability and pathogenicity of 140 isolates of C. sublineola, which were sequenced using restriction site-associated sequencing (RAD-Seq), resulted in 1244 quality SNPs. The genetic relationship based on the SNP data showed low to high genetic diversity based on isolates' origin. Isolates from Georgia and North Carolina were grouped into multiple clusters with some level of genetic relationships to each other. Even though some isolates from Texas formed a cluster, others clustered with isolates from Puerto Rico. The isolates from Puerto Rico showed scattered distribution, indicating the diverse nature of these isolates. A population structure and cluster analysis revealed that the genetic variation was stratified into eight populations and one admixture group. The virulence pattern of 30 sequenced isolates on 18 sorghum differential lines revealed 27 new pathotypes. SC748-5, SC112-14, and Brandes were resistant to all the tested isolates, while BTx623 was susceptible to all. Line TAM428 was susceptible to all the pathotypes, except for pathotype 26. Future use of the 18 differentials employed in this study, which contains cultivars/lines which have been used in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, could allow for better characterization of C. sublineola pathotypes at a global level, thus accelerating the development of sorghum lines with stable resistance to the anthracnose pathogen.

Association analysis of photoperiodic flowering time genes in west and central African sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench].

BACKGROUND: Photoperiod-sensitive flowering is a key adaptive trait for sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in West and Central Africa. In this study we performed an association analysis to investigate the effect of polymorphisms within the genes putatively related to variation in flowering time on photoperiod-sensitive flowering in sorghum. For this purpose a genetically characterized panel of 219 sorghum accessions from West and Central Africa was evaluated for their photoperiod response index (PRI) based on two sowing dates under field conditions. RESULTS: Sorghum accessions used in our study were genotyped for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in six genes putatively involved in the photoperiodic control of flowering time. Applying a mixed model approach and previously-determined population structure parameters to these candidate genes, we found significant associations between several SNPs with PRI for the genes CRYPTOCHROME 1 (CRY1-b1) and GIGANTEA (GI). CONCLUSIONS: The negative values of Tajima's D, found for the genes of our study, suggested that purifying selection has acted on genes involved in photoperiodic control of flowering time in sorghum. The SNP markers of our study that showed significant associations with PRI can be used to create functional markers to serve as important tools for marker-assisted selection of photoperiod-sensitive cultivars in sorghum.

Using next-generation sequencing approaches to isolate simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci in the plant sciences.

The application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies for the development of simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite loci for genetic research in the botanical sciences is described. Microsatellite markers are one of the most informative and versatile DNA-based markers used in plant genetic research, but their development has traditionally been a difficult and costly process. NGS technologies allow the efficient identification of large numbers of microsatellites at a fraction of the cost and effort of traditional approaches. The major advantage of NGS methods is their ability to produce large amounts of sequence data from which to isolate and develop numerous genome-wide and gene-based microsatellite loci. The two major NGS technologies with emergent application in SSR isolation are 454 and Illumina. A review is provided of several recent studies demonstrating the efficient use of 454 and Illumina technologies for the discovery of microsatellites in plants. Additionally, important aspects during NGS isolation and development of microsatellites are discussed, including the use of computational tools and high-throughput genotyping methods. A data set of microsatellite loci in the plastome and mitochondriome of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) is provided to illustrate a successful application of 454 sequencing for SSR discovery. In the future, NGS technologies will massively increase the number of SSRs and other genetic markers available to conduct genetic research in understudied but economically important crops such as cranberry.

Syntenic relationships between cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and melon (C. melo L.) chromosomes as revealed by comparative genetic mapping.

BACKGROUND: Cucumber, Cucumis sativus L. (2n = 2 × = 14) and melon, C. melo L. (2n = 2 × = 24) are two important vegetable species in the genus Cucumis (family Cucurbitaceae). Both species have an Asian origin that diverged approximately nine million years ago. Cucumber is believed to have evolved from melon through chromosome fusion, but the details of this process are largely unknown. In this study, comparative genetic mapping between cucumber and melon was conducted to examine syntenic relationships of their chromosomes. RESULTS: Using two melon mapping populations, 154 and 127 cucumber SSR markers were added onto previously reported F(2)- and RIL-based genetic maps, respectively. A consensus melon linkage map was developed through map integration, which contained 401 co-dominant markers in 12 linkage groups including 199 markers derived from the cucumber genome. Syntenic relationships between melon and cucumber chromosomes were inferred based on associations between markers on the consensus melon map and cucumber draft genome scaffolds. It was determined that cucumber Chromosome 7 was syntenic to melon Chromosome I. Cucumber Chromosomes 2 and 6 each contained genomic regions that were syntenic with melon chromosomes III+V+XI and III+VIII+XI, respectively. Likewise, cucumber Chromosomes 1, 3, 4, and 5 each was syntenic with genomic regions of two melon chromosomes previously designated as II+XII, IV+VI, VII+VIII, and IX+X, respectively. However, the marker orders in several syntenic blocks on these consensus linkage maps were not co-linear suggesting that more complicated structural changes beyond simple chromosome fusion events have occurred during the evolution of cucumber. CONCLUSIONS: Comparative mapping conducted herein supported the hypothesis that cucumber chromosomes may be the result of chromosome fusion from a 24-chromosome progenitor species. Except for a possible inversion, cucumber Chromosome 7 has largely remained intact in the past nine million years since its divergence from melon. Meanwhile, many structural changes may have occurred during the evolution of the remaining six cucumber chromosomes. Further characterization of the genomic nature of Cucumis species closely related to cucumber and melon might provide a better understanding of the evolutionary history leading to modern cucumber.

A consensus linkage map for molecular markers and quantitative trait loci associated with economically important traits in melon (Cucumis melo L.).

BACKGROUND: A number of molecular marker linkage maps have been developed for melon (Cucumis melo L.) over the last two decades. However, these maps were constructed using different marker sets, thus, making comparative analysis among maps difficult. In order to solve this problem, a consensus genetic map in melon was constructed using primarily highly transferable anchor markers that have broad potential use for mapping, synteny, and comparative quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis, increasing breeding effectiveness and efficiency via marker-assisted selection (MAS). RESULTS: Under the framework of the International Cucurbit Genomics Initiative (ICuGI, http://www.icugi.org), an integrated genetic map has been constructed by merging data from eight independent mapping experiments using a genetically diverse array of parental lines. The consensus map spans 1150 cM across the 12 melon linkage groups and is composed of 1592 markers (640 SSRs, 330 SNPs, 252 AFLPs, 239 RFLPs, 89 RAPDs, 15 IMAs, 16 indels and 11 morphological traits) with a mean marker density of 0.72 cM/marker. One hundred and ninety-six of these markers (157 SSRs, 32 SNPs, 6 indels and 1 RAPD) were newly developed, mapped or provided by industry representatives as released markers, including 27 SNPs and 5 indels from genes involved in the organic acid metabolism and transport, and 58 EST-SSRs. Additionally, 85 of 822 SSR markers contributed by Syngenta Seeds were included in the integrated map. In addition, 370 QTL controlling 62 traits from 18 previously reported mapping experiments using genetically diverse parental genotypes were also integrated into the consensus map. Some QTL associated with economically important traits detected in separate studies mapped to similar genomic positions. For example, independently identified QTL controlling fruit shape were mapped on similar genomic positions, suggesting that such QTL are possibly responsible for the phenotypic variability observed for this trait in a broad array of melon germplasm. CONCLUSIONS: Even though relatively unsaturated genetic maps in a diverse set of melon market types have been published, the integrated saturated map presented herein should be considered the initial reference map for melon. Most of the mapped markers contained in the reference map are polymorphic in diverse collection of germplasm, and thus are potentially transferrable to a broad array of genetic experimentation (e.g., integration of physical and genetic maps, colinearity analysis, map-based gene cloning, epistasis dissection, and marker-assisted selection).

The inheritance of anthracnose (Colletotrichum sublineola) resistance in sorghum differential lines QL3 and IS18760.

Anthracnose caused by the fungal pathogen C. sublineola is an economically important constraint on worldwide sorghum production. The most effective strategy to safeguard yield is through the introgression of resistance alleles. This requires elucidation of the genetic basis of the different resistance sources that have been identified. In this study, 223 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from crossing anthracnose-differentials QL3 (96 RILs) and IS18760 (127 RILs) with the common susceptible parent PI609251 were evaluated at four field locations in the United States (Florida, Georgia, Texas, and Puerto Rico) for their anthracnose resistance response. Both RIL populations were highly susceptible to anthracnose in Florida and Georgia, while in Puerto Rico and Texas they were segregating for anthracnose resistance response. A genome scan using a composite linkage map of 982 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) detected two genomic regions of 4.31 and 0.85 Mb on chromosomes 4 and 8, respectively, that explained 10-27% of the phenotypic variation in Texas and Puerto Rico. In parallel, a subset of 43 RILs that contained 67% of the recombination events were evaluated against anthracnose pathotypes from Arkansas (2), Puerto Rico (2) and Texas (4) in the greenhouse. A genome scan showed that the 7.57 Mb region at the distal end of the short arm of chromosome 5 is associated with the resistance response against the pathotype AMP-048 from Arkansas. Comparative analysis identified the genomic region on chromosome 4 overlaps with an anthracnose resistance locus identified in another anthracnose-differential line, SC414-12E, indicating this genomic region is of interest for introgression in susceptible sorghum germplasm. Candidate gene analysis for the resistance locus on chromosome 5 identified an R-gene cluster that has high similarity to another R-gene cluster associated with anthracnose resistance on chromosome 9.

Genomic Dissection of Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sublineolum) Resistance Response in Sorghum Differential Line SC112-14.

Sorghum production is expanding to warmer and more humid regions where its production is being limited by multiple fungal pathogens. Anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum sublineolum, is one of the major diseases in these regions, where it can cause yield losses of both grain and biomass. In this study, 114 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from resistant sorghum line SC112-14 were evaluated at four distinct geographic locations in the United States for response to anthracnose. A genome scan using a high-density linkage map of 3,838 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) detected two loci at 5.25 and 1.18 Mb on chromosomes 5 and 6, respectively, that explain up to 59% and 44% of the observed phenotypic variation. A bin-mapping approach using a subset of 31 highly informative RILs was employed to determine the disease response to inoculation with ten anthracnose pathotypes in the greenhouse. A genome scan showed that the 5.25 Mb region on chromosome 5 is associated with a resistance response to nine pathotypes. Five SNP markers were developed and used to fine map the locus on chromosome 5 by evaluating 1,500 segregating F2:3 progenies. Based on the genotypic and phenotypic analyses of 11 recombinants, the locus was narrowed down to a 470-kb genomic region. Following a genome-wide association study based on 574 accessions previously phenotyped and genotyped, the resistance locus was delimited to a 34-kb genomic interval with five candidate genes. All five candidate genes encode proteins associated with plant immune systems, suggesting they may act in synergy in the resistance response.

Genome-Wide Association Mapping of Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sublineolum) Resistance in NPGS Ethiopian Sorghum Germplasm.

The National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) Ethiopian sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] collection of the United States is an important genetic resource for sorghum improvement. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum sublineolum) is one of the most harmful fungal diseases in humid sorghum production regions. Although multiple resistance sources have been identified in temperate-adapted germplasm in the Sorghum Association Panel (SAP), these resistance loci explain a limited portion of the total variation, and sources of resistance from tropical germplasm are not available for breeding programs at temperate regions. Using a core set of 335 previously genotyped NPGS Ethiopian accessions, we identified 169 accessions resistant to anthracnose. To identify resistance loci, we merged the genotypic and anthracnose response data for both NPGS Ethiopian germplasm and the SAP and performed genome-wide association scans using 219,037 single nucleotide polymorphisms and 617 accessions. The integrated data set enabled the detection of a locus on chromosome 9 present in the SAP at a low frequency. The locus explains a limited portion of the observed phenotypic variation (r2 = 0.31), suggesting the presence of other resistance loci. The locus in chromosome 9 was constituted by three R genes clustered within a 47-kb region. The presence of multiple sources of resistance in NPGS Ethiopian germplasm and SAP requires the inclusion of other resistance response evaluation that could revealed others low frequency resistance alleles in the panel.

Genome-Wide Association Mapping of Grain Mold Resistance in the US Sorghum Association Panel.

Sorghum [ (L.) Moench] production in warm and humid regions is limited by grain mold disease, which can be caused by a complex of >40 pathogenic and opportunistic fungi. The identification of resistant plants within temperate-adapted germplasm is imperative for the development of better-adapted varieties. The performance of 331 accessions from the previously genotyped sorghum association panel (SAP) was evaluated in four tropical environments. Only 18 accessions showed low seed deterioration and high emergence rates. The resistant accessions showed high variation in seed tannin contents and panicle shape, indicating that grain mold resistance is not associated with a single phenotypic trait. Seed mycoflora analysis recovered pathogenic fungi , , and in both resistant and susceptible accessions. By genome-wide association scans using 268,289 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), we identified two loci associated with low seed deterioration and another associated with emergence rate. Candidate genes within these loci included one gene () and two genes ( and ) with domains associated with systemic acquired resistance, suggesting that resistance involved pathogen recognition and downstream signaling cascades. This study provides insight into the genetic control of grain mold resistance as well as valuable accessions for breeding programs in temperate environments.

Population structure of the NPGS Senegalese sorghum collection and its evaluation to identify new disease resistant genes.

Sorghum germplasm from West and Central Africa is cultivated in rainy and high humidity regions and is an important source of resistance genes to fungal diseases. Mold and anthracnose are two important biotic constraints to sorghum production in wet areas worldwide. Here, 158 National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) accessions from Senegal were evaluated for agronomic traits, anthracnose, and grain mold resistance at two locations, and genetically characterized according to 20 simple sequence repeat markers. A total of 221 alleles were amplified with an average of 11 alleles per locus. Each accession had a unique genetic profile (i.e., no duplicates), and the average genetic distance between accessions was 0.42. Population structure and cluster analysis separated the collection into four populations with pairwise FST values >0.15. Three of the populations were composed of Guinea-race sorghum germplasm, and one included multiple races. Anthracnose resistant accessions were present at high frequency and evenly distributed among the three Guinea-race populations. Fourteen accessions showed resistance to grain mold, and eight were resistant to both diseases. These results indicated that the NPGS of Senegal is a genetically diverse collection with a high frequency of disease resistant accessions. Nevertheless, its population structure suggests the presence of few sources of resistance to both grain mold and anthracnose, which are fixed in the germplasm. The phenotypic and genotypic information for these accessions provides a valuable resource for its correct use to broaden the genetic base of breeding programs.