Experimental upper bounds for resonance-enhanced entangled two-photon absorption cross section of indocyanine green.

Resonant intermediate states have been proposed to increase the efficiency of entangled two-photon absorption (ETPA). Although resonance-enhanced ETPA (r-ETPA) has been demonstrated in atomic systems using bright squeezed vacuum, it has not been studied in organic molecules. We investigate for the first time r-ETPA in an organic molecular dye, indocyanine green (ICG), when excited by broadband entangled photons in near-IR. Similar to many reported virtual state mediated ETPA (v-ETPA) measurements, no r-ETPA signals are measured, with an experimental upper bound for the cross section placed at 6(±2) × 10-23 cm2. In addition, the classical resonance-enhanced two-photon absorption (r-TPA) cross section of ICG at 800 nm is measured for the first time to be 20(±13) GM, where 1 GM equals 10-50 cm4 s, suggesting that having a resonant intermediate state does not significantly enhance two-photon processes in ICG. The spectrotemporally resolved emission signatures of ICG excited by entangled photons are also presented to support this conclusion.

Ultrafast Formation of Charge Transfer Trions at Molecular-Functionalized 2D MoS2 Interfaces.

In this work, we investigate trion dynamics occurring at the heterojunction between organometallic molecules and a monolayer transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) with transient electronic sum frequency generation (tr-ESFG) spectroscopy. By pumping at 2.4 eV with laser pulses, we have observed an ultrafast hole transfer, succeeded by the emergence of charge-transfer trions. This observation is facilitated by the cancellation of ground state bleach and stimulated emission signals due to their opposite phases, making tr-ESFG especially sensitive to the trion formation dynamics. The presence of charge-transfer trion at molecular functionalized TMD monolayers suggests the potential for engineering the local electronic structures and dynamics of specific locations on TMDs and offers a potential for transferring unique electronic attributes of TMD to the molecular layers.

Using electron energy-loss spectroscopy to measure nanoscale electronic and vibrational dynamics in a TEM.

Electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) can measure similar information to x-ray, UV-Vis, and IR spectroscopies but with atomic resolution and increased scattering cross-sections. Recent advances in electron monochromators have expanded EELS capabilities from chemical identification to the realms of synchrotron-level core-loss measurements and to low-loss, 10-100 meV excitations, such as phonons, excitons, and valence structures. EELS measurements are easily correlated with electron diffraction and atomic-scale real-space imaging in a transmission electron microscope (TEM) to provide detailed local pictures of quasiparticle and bonding states. This perspective provides an overview of existing high-resolution EELS (HR-EELS) capabilities while also motivating the powerful next step in the field-ultrafast EELS in a TEM. Ultrafast EELS aims to combine atomic-level, element-specific, and correlated temporal measurements to better understand spatially specific excited-state phenomena. Ultrafast EELS measurements also add to the abilities of steady-state HR-EELS by being able to image the electromagnetic field and use electrons to excite photon-forbidden and momentum-specific transitions. We discuss the technical challenges ultrafast HR-EELS currently faces, as well as how integration with in situ and cryo measurements could expand the technique to new systems of interest, especially molecular and biological samples.

Excitation-wavelength-dependent small polaron trapping of photoexcited carriers in α-Fe2O3.

Small polaron formation is known to limit ground-state mobilities in metal oxide photocatalysts. However, the role of small polaron formation in the photoexcited state and how this affects the photoconversion efficiency has yet to be determined. Here, transient femtosecond extreme-ultraviolet measurements suggest that small polaron localization is responsible for the ultrafast trapping of photoexcited carriers in haematite (α-Fe2O3). Small polaron formation is evidenced by a sub-100 fs splitting of the Fe 3p core orbitals in the Fe M2,3 edge. The small polaron formation kinetics reproduces the triple-exponential relaxation frequently attributed to trap states. However, the measured spectral signature resembles only the spectral predictions of a small polaron and not the pre-edge features expected for mid-gap trap states. The small polaron formation probability, hopping radius and lifetime varies with excitation wavelength, decreasing with increasing energy in the t2g conduction band. The excitation-wavelength-dependent localization of carriers by small polaron formation is potentially a limiting factor in haematite's photoconversion efficiency.

Plasmon-enhanced optical sensors: a review.

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) has found extensive applications in chemi-sensors and biosensors. Plasmons play different roles in different types of optical sensors. SPR transduces a signal in a colorimetric sensor through shifts in the spectral position and intensity in response to external stimuli. SPR can also concentrate the incident electromagnetic field in a nanostructure, modulating fluorescence emission and enabling plasmon-enhanced fluorescence to be used for ultrasensitive detection. Furthermore, plasmons have been extensively used for amplifying a Raman signal in a surface-enhanced Raman scattering sensor. This paper presents a review of recent research progress in plasmon-enhanced optical sensing, giving emphasis on the physical basis of plasmon-enhanced sensors and how these principles guide the design of sensors. In particular, this paper discusses the design strategies for nanomaterials and nanostructures to plasmonically enhance optical sensing signals, also highlighting the applications of plasmon-enhanced optical sensors in healthcare, homeland security, food safety and environmental monitoring.

Theoretical maximum efficiency of solar energy conversion in plasmonic metal-semiconductor heterojunctions.

Plasmonics can enhance solar energy conversion in semiconductors by light trapping, hot electron transfer, and plasmon-induced resonance energy transfer (PIRET). The multifaceted response of the plasmon and multiple interaction pathways with the semiconductor makes optimization challenging, hindering design of efficient plasmonic architectures. Therefore, in this paper we use a density matrix model to capture the interplay between scattering, hot electrons, and dipole-dipole coupling through the plasmon's dephasing, including both the coherent and incoherent dynamics necessary for interactions on the plasmon's timescale. The model is extended to Shockley-Queisser limit calculations for both photovoltaics and solar-to-chemical conversion, revealing the optimal application of each enhancement mechanism based on plasmon energy, semiconductor energy, and plasmon dephasing. The results guide application of plasmonic solar-energy harvesting, showing which enhancement mechanism is most appropriate for a given semiconductor's weakness, and what nanostructures can achieve the maximum enhancement.

Tailoring plasmonic properties of gold nanohole arrays for surface-enhanced Raman scattering.

The wide plasmonic tuning range of nanotriangle and nanohole array patterns fabricated by nanosphere lithography makes them promising in surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensors. Unfortunately, it is challenging to optimize these patterns for SERS sensing because their optical response is a complex mixture of localized surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and propagating surface plasmon polariton (SPP). In this paper, transmission and reflection measurements are combined with finite difference time domain simulations to identify and separate each plasmonic mode, discerning which resonance leads to the electromagnetic field enhancement. The SERS enhancement is found to be dominated by the absorption, which is shifted from the transmission and reflection dips usually used as tuning points, and by the 'gap' defects formed within the pattern. These effects have different spectral and geometric dependences, forming two optimization curves which can be used to predict the best performance for a given excitation wavelength. The developed model is verified with experimental SERS measurements for several nanohole sizes and periodicities, and then used to give optimal fabrication parameters for a range of measurement conditions. The results will promote the application of two-dimensional plasmonic nanoarrays in SERS sensors.

Band gap narrowing in nitrogen-doped La2Ti2O7 predicted by density-functional theory calculations.

In order to reveal the origin of enhanced photocatalytic activity of N-doped La2Ti2O7 in both the visible light and ultraviolet light regions, its electronic structure has been studied using spin-polarized conventional density functional theory (DFT) and the Heyd-Scuseria-Ernzerhof (HSE06) hybrid approach. The results show that the deep localized states are formed in the forbidden band when nitrogen solely substitutes for oxygen. Introducing the interstitial Ti atom into the N-doped La2Ti2O7 photocatalyst still causes the formation of a localized energy state. Two nitrogen substitutions co-exist stably with one oxygen vacancy, creating a continuum energy band just above the valence band maximum. The formation of a continuum band instead of mid-gap states can extend the light absorption to the visible light region without increasing the charge recombination, explaining the enhanced visible light performance without deteriorating the ultraviolet light photocatalytic activity.

Investigation of band gap narrowing in nitrogen-doped La2Ti2O7 with transient absorption spectroscopy.

Doping a semiconductor can extend the light absorption range, however, it usually introduces mid-gap states, reducing the charge carrier lifetime. This report shows that doping lanthanum dititinate (La2Ti2O7) with nitrogen extends the valence band edge by creating a continuum of dopant states, increasing the light absorption edge from 380 nm to 550 nm without adding mid-gap states. The dopant states are experimentally resolved in the excited state by correlating transient absorption spectroscopy with a supercontinuum probe and DFT prediction. The lack of mid-gap states is further confirmed by measuring the excited state lifetimes, which reveal the shifted band edge only increased carrier thermalization rates to the band edge and not interband charge recombination under both ultraviolet and visible excitation. Terahertz (time-domain) spectroscopy also reveals that the conduction mechanism remains unchanged after doping, suggesting the states are delocalized.

Solar hydrogen generation by a CdS-Au-TiO2 sandwich nanorod array enhanced with Au nanoparticle as electron relay and plasmonic photosensitizer.

This paper presents a sandwich-structured CdS-Au-TiO2 nanorod array as the photoanode in a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) for hydrogen generation via splitting water. The gold nanoparticles sandwiched between the TiO2 nanorod and the CdS quantum dot (QD) layer play a dual role in enhancing the solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency. First, the Au nanoparticles serve as an electron relay, which facilitates the charge transfer between CdS and TiO2 when the CdS QDs are photoexcited by wavelengths shorter than 525 nm. Second, the Au nanoparticles act as a plasmonic photosensitizer, which enables the solar-to-hydrogen conversion at wavelengths longer than the band edge of CdS, extending the photoconversion wavelength from 525 to 725 nm. The dual role of Au leads to a photocurrent of 4.07 mA/cm(2) at 0 V (vs Ag|AgCl) under full solar spectrum irradiation and a maximum solar-to-chemical energy conversion efficiency of 2.8%. An inversion analysis is applied to the transient absorption spectroscopy data, tracking the transfer of electrons and holes in the heterostructure, relating the relaxation dynamics to the underlying coupled rate equation and revealing that trap-state Auger recombination is a dominant factor in interfacial charge transfer. It is found that addition of Au nanoparticles increases the charge-transfer lifetime, reduces the trap-state Auger rate, suppresses the long-time scale back transfer, and partially compensates the negative effects of the surface trap states. Finally, the plasmonic energy-transfer mechanism is identified as direct transfer of the plasmonic hot carriers, and the interfacial Schottky barrier height is shown to modulate the plasmonic hot electron transfer and back transfer. Transient absorption characterization of the charge transfer shows defect states cannot be ignored when designing QD-sensitized solar cells. This facile sandwich structure combines both the electrical and the optical functions of Au nanoparticles into a single structure, which has implications for the design of efficient solar-energy-harvesting devices.

Coherent charge hopping suppresses photoexcited small polarons in ErFeO3 by antiadiabatic formation mechanism.

Polarons are prevalent in condensed matter systems with strong electron-phonon coupling. The adiabaticity of the polaron relates to its transport properties and spatial extent. To date, only adiabatic small polaron formation has been measured following photoexcitation. The lattice reorganization energy is large enough that the first electron-optical phonon scattering event creates a small polaron without requiring substantial carrier thermalization. We measure that frustrating the iron-centered octahedra in the rare-earth orthoferrite ErFeO3 leads to antiadiabatic polaron formation. Coherent charge hopping between neighboring Fe3+─Fe2+ sites is measured with transient extreme ultraviolet spectroscopy and lasts several picoseconds before the polaron forms. The resulting small polaron formation time is an order of magnitude longer than previous measurements and indicates a shallow potential well, even in the excited state. The results emphasize the importance of considering dynamic electron-electron correlations, not just electron-phonon-induced lattice changes, for small polarons for transport, catalysis, and photoexcited applications.

Solar hydrogen generation by nanoscale p-n junction of p-type molybdenum disulfide/n-type nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide.

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is a promising candidate for solar hydrogen generation but it alone has negligible photocatalytic activity. In this work, 5-20 nm sized p-type MoS2 nanoplatelets are deposited on the n-type nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide (n-rGO) nanosheets to form multiple nanoscale p-n junctions in each rGO nanosheet. The p-MoS2/n-rGO heterostructure shows significant photocatalytic activity toward the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in the wavelength range from the ultraviolet light through the near-infrared light. The photoelectrochemical measurement shows that the p-MoS2/n-rGO junction greatly enhances the charge generation and suppresses the charge recombination, which is responsible for enhancement of solar hydrogen generation. The p-MoS2/n-rGO is an earth-abundant and environmentally benign photocatalyst for solar hydrogen generation.

Asymmetric silver "nanocarrot" structures: solution synthesis and their asymmetric plasmonic resonances.

Here we report the wet-chemical synthesis of asymmetric one-dimensional (1D) silver "nanocarrot" structures that exhibit mixed twins and stacking fault domains along the <111> direction. Oriented attachment is the dominant mechanism for anisotropic growth. Multipolar plasmon resonances up to fourth order were measured by optical extinction spectroscopy and electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) and are in agreement with theoretical calculations. Compared with those of symmetric 1D nanostructures of similar length, the dipole modes of the nanocarrots show a clear red shift, and the EELS maps show an asymmetric distribution of the resonant plasmonic fields and a compression of the resonance node spacing toward the tail. In addition, increasing the length of the nanocarrots causes an increase in the intensity and a steady red shift of the longitudinal surface plasmon resonance peaks. The silver nanocarrots also show very high sensitivity to the refractive index of their environment (890 ± 87 nm per refractive index unit).

Plasmonic nanorice antenna on triangle nanoarray for surface-enhanced Raman scattering detection of hepatitis B virus DNA.

The sensitivity and the limit of detection of Raman sensors are limited by the extremely small scattering cross section of Raman labels. Silver nanorice antennae are coupled with a patterned gold triangle nanoarray chip to create spatially broadened plasmonic "hot spots", which enables a large density of Raman labels to experience strong local electromagnetic field. Finite difference time domain simulations have confirmed that the quasi-periodic structure increases the intensity and the area of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR), which enhances the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) signal significantly. The SERS signal of the nanorice/DNA/nanoarray chip is compared with that of the nanorice/DNA/film chip. The SERS signal is greatly enhanced when the Ag nanorices are coupled to the periodic Au nanoarray instead of the planar film chip. The resulting spatially broadened SPR field enables the SERS biosensor with a limit of detection of 50 aM toward hepatitis B virus DNA with the capability of discriminating a single-base mutant of DNA. This sensing platform can be extended to detect other chemical species and biomolecules such as proteins and small molecules.

Photocatalytic hydrogen generation enhanced by band gap narrowing and improved charge carrier mobility in AgTaO3 by compensated co-doping.

The correlation of the electronic band structure with the photocatalytic activity of AgTaO3 has been studied by simulation and experiments. Doping wide band gap oxide semiconductors usually introduces discrete mid-gap states, which extends the light absorption but has limited benefit for photocatalytic activity. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations show that compensated co-doping in AgTaO3 can overcome this problem by increasing the light absorption and simultaneously improving the charge carrier mobility. N/H and N/F co-doping can delocalize the discrete mid-gap states created by sole N doping in AgTaO3, which increases the band curvature and the electron-to-hole effective mass ratio. In particular, N/F co-doping creates a continuum of states that extend the valence band of AgTaO3. N/F co-doping thus improves the light absorption without creating the mid-gap states, maintaining the necessary redox potentials for water splitting and preventing from charge carrier trapping. The experimental results have confirmed that the N/F-codoped AgTaO3 exhibits a red-shift of the absorption edge in comparison with the undoped AgTaO3, leading to remarkable enhancement of photocatalytic activity toward hydrogen generation from water.

Entangled Photon Correlations Allow a Continuous-Wave Laser Diode to Measure Single-Photon, Time-Resolved Fluorescence.

Fluorescence lifetime experiments are a standard approach for measuring excited-state dynamics and local environmental effects. Here, we show that entangled photon pairs produced from a continuous-wave (CW) laser diode can replicate pulsed laser experiments without phase modulation. As a proof of principle, picosecond fluorescence lifetimes of indocyanine green are measured in multiple environments. The use of entangled photons has three unique advantages. First, low-power CW laser diodes and entangled photon source design lead to straightforward on-chip integration for a direct path to distributable fluorescence lifetime measurements. Second, the entangled pair's wavelength is easily tuned by adjusting the temperature or electric field, allowing a single source to cover octave bandwidths. Third, femtosecond temporal resolutions can be reached without requiring major advances in source technology or external phase modulation. Entangled photons could therefore provide increased accessibility to time-resolved fluorescence while also opening new scientific avenues in photosensitive and inherently quantum systems.

Measuring Photoexcited Electron and Hole Dynamics in ZnTe and Modeling Excited State Core-Valence Effects in Transient Extreme Ultraviolet Reflection Spectroscopy.

Transient extreme ultraviolet (XUV) spectroscopy is becoming a valuable tool for characterizing solar energy materials because it can separate photoexcited electron and hole dynamics with element specificity. Here, we use surface-sensitive femtosecond XUV reflection spectroscopy to separately measure photoexcited electron, hole, and band gap dynamics of ZnTe, a promising photocathode for CO2 reduction. We develop an ab initio theoretical framework based on density functional theory and the Bethe-Salpeter equation to robustly assign the complex transient XUV spectra to the material's electronic states. Applying this framework, we identify the relaxation pathways and quantify their time scales in photoexcited ZnTe, including subpicosecond hot electron and hole thermalization, surface carrier diffusion, ultrafast band gap renormalization, and evidence of acoustic phonon oscillations.

Photocatalytic activity enhanced by plasmonic resonant energy transfer from metal to semiconductor.

Plasmonic metal nanostructures have been incorporated into semiconductors to enhance the solar-light harvesting and the energy-conversion efficiency. So far the mechanism of energy transfer from the plasmonic metal to semiconductors remains unclear. Herein the underlying plasmonic energy-transfer mechanism is unambiguously determined in Au@SiO(2)@Cu(2)O sandwich nanostructures by transient-absorption and photocatalysis action spectrum measurement. The gold core converts the energy of incident photons into localized surface plasmon resonance oscillations and transfers the plasmonic energy to the Cu(2)O semiconductor shell via resonant energy transfer (RET). RET generates electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor by the dipole-dipole interaction between the plasmonic metal (donor) and semiconductor (acceptor), which greatly enhances the visible-light photocatalytic activity as compared to the semiconductor alone. RET from a plasmonic metal to a semiconductor is a viable and efficient mechanism that can be used to guide the design of photocatalysts, photovoltaics, and other optoelectronic devices.

Shape-dependent surface-enhanced Raman scattering in gold-Raman probe-silica sandwiched nanoparticles for biocompatible applications.

To meet the requirement of Raman probes (labels) for biocompatible applications, a synthetic approach has been developed to sandwich the Raman-probe (malachite green isothiocyanate, MGITC) molecules between the gold core and the silica shell in gold-SiO2 composite nanoparticles. The gold-MGITC-SiO2 sandwiched structure not only prevents the Raman probe from leaking out but also improves the solubility of the nanoparticles in organic solvents and in aqueous solutions even with high ionic strength. To amplify the Raman signal, three types of core, gold nanospheres, nanorods and nanostars, have been chosen as the substrates of the Raman probe. The effect of the core shape on the surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has been investigated. The colloidal nanostars showed the highest SERS enhancement factor while the nanospheres possessed the lowest SERS activity under excitation with 532 and 785 nm lasers. Three-dimensional finite-difference time domain (FDTD) simulation showed significant differences in the local electromagnetic field distributions surrounding the nanospheres, nanorods, and nanostars, which were induced by the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). The electromagnetic field was enhanced remarkably around the two ends of the nanorods and around the sharp tips of the nanostars. This local electromagnetic enhancement made the dominant contribution to the SERS enhancement. Both the experiments and the simulation revealed the order nanostars > nanorods > nanospheres in terms of the enhancement factor. Finally, the biological application of the nanostar-MGITC-SiO2 nanoparticles has been demonstrated in the monitoring of DNA hybridization. In short, the gold­MGITC-SiO2 sandwiched nanoparticles can be used as a Raman probe that features high sensitivity, good water solubility and stability, low-background fluorescence, and the absence of photobleaching for future biological applications.

Single-Photon Scattering Can Account for the Discrepancies among Entangled Two-Photon Measurement Techniques.

Entangled photon pairs are predicted to linearize and increase the efficiency of two-photon absorption, allowing continuous wave laser diodes to drive ultrafast time-resolved spectroscopy and nonlinear processes. Despite a range of theoretical studies and experimental measurements, inconsistencies in the value of the entanglement-enhanced interaction cross section persist. A spectrometer that can temporally and spectrally characterize the entangled photon state before, during, and after any potential two-photon excitation event is constructed. For the molecule rhodamine 6G, which has a virtual state pathway, any entangled two-photon interaction is found to be equal to or weaker than classical, single-photon scattering events. This result can account for the discrepancies among the wide variety of entangled two-photon absorption cross sections reported from different measurement techniques. The reported instrumentation can unambiguously separate classical and entangled effects and therefore is important for the growing field of nonlinear and multiphoton entangled spectroscopy.