Intraoperative value of the thompson test.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the validity of the Thompson sign and determine whether the deep flexors of the foot can produce a falsely intact Achilles tendon.Ten unmatched above-the-knee lower extremity cadaveric specimens were studied. In group 1, the Achilles tendon was sectioned into 25% increments. The Thompson maneuver was performed after each sequential sectioning of the Achilles tendon, including after it had been completely sectioned. If the Thompson sign was still intact after complete release of the Achilles tendon, we proceeded to release the tendon, and tendon flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, and posterior tibial tendons. The Thompson test was performed after the release of each tendon. In group 2, the tendon releases were performed in a reverse order to that of group 1, with the Thompson test performed after each release. In group 1, the Thompson sign remained intact in all specimens after sectioning of 25%, 50%, and 75% of the tendon. After complete (100%) release of the tendon, the Thompson sign was absent in all specimens. In group 2, the Thompson sign remained intact after sectioning of the posterior tibial, flexor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus tendons in all specimens. The Thompson sign remained intact in all specimens after sectioning of 25%, 50%, and 75% of the Achilles tendon. After complete release of the tendon, the Thompson sign was absent in all specimens.The Thompson test is an accurate clinical test for diagnosing complete Achilles tendon ruptures. However, it might not be a useful test for diagnosing partial Achilles tendon ruptures. Our findings also call into question the usefulness of the Thompson test in the intraoperative setting.

Treatment of Insertional Achilles Tendinosis With Polyurethane Urea-Based Matrix Augmentation.

INTRODUCTION: Surgical treatment for insertional Achilles tendinosis (IAT) sometimes requires tendon repair augmentation. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of polycaprolactone-based polyurethane urea (PUUR) matrix augmentation in the treatment of IAT. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed in surgically treated IAT. Repairs were augmented with a PUUR matrix. Factors evaluated included date of full weightbearing, patient satisfaction, Visual Analog Scale (VAS) pain score, strength, and ankle motion. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare baseline and final follow-up VAS scores. RESULTS: A total of 18 cases were included in the study. The mean patient age was 54.61 ± 8.25 (40-75) years with a mean follow-up of 163.61 ± 57.81 (92-314) days. Patient satisfaction was obtained on 15 of 18 patients, with 14 patients satisfied with their outcome. Mean VAS for pain significantly decreased from 6.19 ± 1.97 (2.5-9) to 0.83 ± 1.54 (0-5) postoperatively, which was statistically significant (P < .01). CONCLUSION: Achilles tendon augmentation with the PUUR matrix is a viable option in the treatment of IAT. Its use in this condition has minimal morbidity and can be an alternative to other forms of augmentation. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Level IV: Retrospective case series.

Arthroscopic treatment of osteochondral lesions of the tibial plafond.

BACKGROUND: Osteochondral lesions of the distal tibial plafond (OLTPs) are an uncommon problem. The purpose of this study was to evaluate clinical outcomes following arthroscopic treatment of OLTPs. METHODS: Retrospective chart review was performed on all patients treated arthroscopically for OLTPs. Treatment consisted of generalized synovectomy followed by curettage of the lesion and microfracture. If a cartilage cap was intact, antegrade drilling was performed. Cystic defects were treated with curettage of the cyst and filling of any defect with bone graft. RESULTS: A total of 13 patients were included. Nine patients had isolated lesions, while four had lesions of the distal tibial plafond and talar dome. Average followup was 156 (range, 38 to 402 ± 117.9) weeks and average patient age was 32.9 (range, 14 to 50 ± 11.8) years. Eleven of 13 patients were available for followup modified AOFAS score. The average preoperative score was 35.2 (range, 24 to 49 ± 7.1). The average postoperative modified AOFAS score was 50.4 (range, 33 to 56 ± 7.6). There were four patients (30.8%) with a poor outcome. CONCLUSION: OLTPs can be challenging to treat. Arthroscopic treatment can lead to improved outcomes. However, the higher incidence of poor outcomes in our series may indicate less predictability in the treatment of OLTPs and that outcomes may not be equivalent to previous reported studies on OLTPs or osteochondral lesions of the talus.

Correction of rigid equinovarus deformity using a multiplanar external fixator.

BACKGROUND: The rigid equinovarus foot deformity is a challenging condition treated by the orthopaedic foot and ankle surgeon. Rapid surgical correction of the deformity may lead to skin and neurologic complications. Gradual correction of the deformity with a multiplanar external fixator may decrease these complications. The purpose of this study was to present the results of a group of patients with rigid equinovarus deformities corrected using a multiplanar external fixator. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the results of correction of a rigid equinovarus deformity using multiplanar external fixation in a small group of patients. All patients underwent open Achilles lengthening, posterior capsule release, tibialis posterior tendon lengthening, flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallux longus lengthening, followed by application of a multiplanar external fixator with gradual correction of the deformity over a period of several weeks. Preoperative and postoperative deformity and AOFAS ankle-hindfoot scores were assessed. RESULTS: A total of eight rigid equinovarus deformities in six patients were treated with a multiplanar external fixator. The average patient age at the time of surgery was 37.2 (range, 17 to 59 ± 15.0) years. Causes of the deformity included trauma in three patients, traumatic brain injury in two patients, and long-standing rheumatoid arthritis in one patient. The average preoperative AOFAS ankle-hindfoot score was 28.3 (range, 12 to 38 ± 7.7). The average postoperative AOFAS ankle-hindfoot score was 68.1 (range 38 to 86 ± 15.5) at an average followup of 71.9 (30 to 120 ± 36.2) weeks. All deformities were gradually corrected to a plantigrade foot using a multiplanar external fixator over an average time of 5 (range, 4 to 6 ± 0.8) weeks. After correction of the deformity, the external fixator was left in place for a time period equal to or twice the length of time it took to achieve correction. The average duration of external fixation was 10.8 (range, 8 to 16 ± 2.8) weeks. Seven of eight deformities maintained correction at final followup. There was one case of recurrence. CONCLUSION: Correction of a rigid equinovarus deformity using a multiplanar external fixator was a viable treatment option. It allowed for correction of the deformity in a controlled manner, helping to reduce the risk of neurovascular complications that may result from single stage surgical correction. The risk of wound complications still exists with the correction of such a complex deformity.

Osteochondral lesions of the talus: predictors of clinical outcome.

BACKGROUND: Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) are a common and challenging condition treated by the orthopedic foot and ankle surgeon. Multiple operative treatment modalities have been recommended, and there are several factors that need to be considered when devising a treatment plan. In this study, we retrospectively reviewed a group of patients treated operatively for osteochondral lesions of the talus to determine factors that may have affected outcome. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of clinical, radiographic and operative records was performed for all patients treated for OLTs via marrow stimulation technique. All had a minimum followup of 6 months or until return to full activity, preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the OLT to determine size, and failure of nonoperative treatment. RESULTS: A total of 130 patients were included in the study. This included 64 males and 66 females. The average patient age at the time of surgery was 35.1 +/- 13.7 (range, 12 to 73) years. The average followup was 37.2 +/- 40.2 (range, 7.43 to 247) weeks. The average size of the lesion was 0.84 +/- 0.67 cm2. There were 20 lesions larger than 1.5 cm2 and 110 lesions smaller than 1.5 cm2. There were 113 contained lesions and 17 uncontained lesions. OLTs larger than 1.5 cm2 and uncontained lesions were associated with a poor clinical outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus remains a challenge to the foot and ankle surgeon. Arthroscopic debridement and drilling will often provide satisfactory results. However, larger lesions and uncontained lesions are often associated with inferior functional outcomes and may require a more extensive initial procedure.

Femoral head allograft for tibiotalocalcaneal fusion using a cup and cone reamer technique.

End-stage degenerative joint disease of the hindfoot with large structural bone deficits is a complex problem encountered by the foot and ankle surgeon. Surgical treatment of this condition often requires tibiotalocalcaneal fusion with use of structural allograft bone. In this article, we describe a technique in which an acetabular reamer is used to create a concave surface for placement of a convex femoral head allograft. This "cup-and-cone" technique provides a congruent area for placement of the allograft, thereby increasing stability of the graft during preparation and placement of an intramedullary nail, while maximizing bone-to-bone surface contact at the arthrodesis site.

Cannulated screw fixation of Jones fifth metatarsal fractures: a comparison of titanium and stainless steel screw fixation.

The classic Jones fracture involves the fifth metatarsal at the level of the proximal diaphyseal-metaphyseal junction. The mainstay of surgical treatment for the Jones fracture is intramedullary screw fixation. There is no consensus of the type or material of screw that should be used. The purpose of this retrospective cohort study was to test the hypothesis that there is no clinical difference in the incidence of healing, or complications, when comparing stainless steel to titanium cannulated screws used in Jones fracture open-reduction internal fixation (ORIF). Data were collected on a total of 53 patients (fractures) that were fixed with either cannulated titanium screws (Ti group) or cannulated stainless steel screws (SS group). The postoperative protocol was standardized. The mean time to radiographic union was 11.7 ± 5.1 weeks in the Ti group and 13.4 ± 5.7 weeks in the SS group (P = .333). The overall union rate for the Ti group was 36/37 (97%) and 14/16 (88%) in the SS group (P = .213). Complications were rare in both groups, and the prevalence was not statistically significantly different (P > .05). There was 1 patient with an asymptomatic radiographic nonunion in the Ti group, and this patient elected not to undergo revision. There were 2 nonunions in the SS group. One was revised and went on to heal and the other is awaiting revision. Our study has demonstrated the decision to use stainless steel or titanium can be left to patient constraints, such as allergies, or physician preference without compromising the clinical result.

Safety Profile of Synthetic Elastic Degradable Matrix for Soft Tissue Reconstruction in Foot & Ankle Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Augmentation of soft tissue repairs has been helpful in protecting surgically repaired tissues as they heal. FlexBand (Artelon, Marietta, Georgia) is a synthetic, degradable, polycaprolactone-based polyurethane urea (PUUR) matrix that has been investigated and used for soft tissue repair in a variety of settings. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the safety profile of a PUUR matrix in a large cohort of patients undergoing soft tissue repairs about the foot and ankle. METHODS: A retrospective chart review of consecutive patients who underwent surgery using FlexBand to augment a soft tissue repair was performed to evaluate for major and minor complications related to the PUUR matrix. Results. A total of 105 patients with an average >6 months follow-up were included. The most common procedures were spring ligament repair, Achilles tendon repair, and Brostrom. There were 12 complications. Four major complications occurred with only 1 requiring PUUR matrix removal. Patients with wound complications had a higher body mass index (BMI) and rate of smoking. CONCLUSION: Complication rates involving PUUR matrix in soft tissue foot and ankle reconstruction procedures are low and comparable with historical complication rates. The PUUR matrix is safe for use in a variety of soft tissue procedures about the foot and ankle.Level of Evidence: Level 4, Retrospective case-series.

Lasso stitch with peroneal retinaculoplasty for repair of fractured os peroneum: a report of two cases.

UNLABELLED: Fracture of the os peroneus with retraction of the peroneus longus tendon can lead to weakness, instability, and progressive foot deformity. Treatment recommendations vary and include simple immobilization, repair of the fractured ossicle, excision of part or all of the fractured ossicle with repair of the tendon and tenodesis with the peroneus brevis tendon. We present two patients treated with excision of the proximal fragment and repair of the tendon to the distal fragment with relief of pain and restoration of function. The distal fragment was captured with a looped suture which allowed avoidance of a plantar exposure while still achieving an adequate repair. We also describe a technique for retinaculoplasty of the inferior peroneal retinaculum which we believe important to prevent postoperative adhesions to the tendon. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level V, expert opinion. See Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Autogenous bone graft harvest using reamer irrigator aspirator (RIA) technique for tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis.

Tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis is a technically demanding procedure that can be associated with a high number of complications, including nonunion. Bone grafting is commonly used in arthrodesis procedures to decrease the risk of nonunion. In this article, we describe a technique that uses a reamer-irrigator-aspirator (RIA) method for procurement of autogenous bone graft for use in tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis fixated with a retrograde intramedullary nail. Using the RIA technique, autogenous bone graft can be readily obtained without the need for additional incisions and dissection, thereby minimizing the need for additional sources of bone graft.

Utility of Dehydrated Human Amniotic Membrane (DHAM) in Total Ankle Arthroplasty.

BACKGROUND: Wound complications after total ankle arthroplasty (TAA) are a common postoperative complication occurring in 14% to 66% of all surgeries. Soft tissue breakdown along the anterior incision can cause exposure of anterior tendons and implant, and adhesions of the extensor tendons of the foot. Recent publications have advocated for the implantation of dehydrated human amniotic membrane (DHAM) allograft during closure of anterior ankle incisions during TAA. The goal of this study was to determine whether implantation of DHAM allograft in TAAs decreased overall postoperative wound complications. METHODS: One hundred seventy patients with end-stage ankle arthritis refractory to conservative management underwent TAA with a standard anterior approach by 1 of 3 board-certified foot and ankle orthopedic surgeons. Ninety-one patients underwent closure of the anterior incision with addition of DHAM, whereas 79 patients served as the control (no addition of DHAM). The primary endpoints considered were postoperative complications and reoperation. Included in the postoperative complications was return to the operating room, postoperative plastic surgery intervention, wound communication with the implant, removal of the implant, neurolysis, tendon debridement, and extensor hallucis longus contracture/adhesions. RESULTS: In the analysis of our demographically homogenous cohorts, there was no statistically significant difference in any postoperative complications between patients closed with DHAM and controls. Return to the operating room occurred in 8.9% of controls and 15.4% of the DHAM group (P = .291). Similarly, there was no statistically significant difference in postoperative plastic surgery, wound communication with the implant, implant removal, neurolysis, and tendon debridement between the control and DHAM groups. CONCLUSION: The application of DHAM theoretically acts to decrease overall wound complications in TAA. The use of DHAM preceding wound closure in TAA did not show a statistically significant reduction in overall wound complications in our retrospective analysis. Further study, including prospective randomized studies, is needed to further investigate the effectiveness of DHAM in reducing wound complications in TAAs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, retrospective cohort study.

Rate of Delayed Union With Early Weightbearing Following Intramedullary Screw Fixation of Jones Fractures.

BACKGROUND: Jones fractures of the proximal fifth metatarsal are predisposed to delayed union and nonunion due to a tenuous blood supply. Solid intramedullary (IM) screw fixation is recommended to improve healing, traditionally followed by delayed weightbearing (DWB). However, early weightbearing (EWB) postoperatively may facilitate functional recovery. The purpose of this study was to compare union rates and time to union after solid IM screw fixation of Jones fractures in patients treated with an EWB protocol to those treated with a DWB protocol, as well as to identify any factors that may be predictive of delayed or nonunion. METHODS: True Jones (zone 2 fifth metatarsal base) fractures treated from April 2012 through January 2018 with IM screw fixation and 6 months follow-up were identified (41 fractures in 40 patients; mean ± SD age, 45.3 ± 17.9 years). Patients were divided into EWB and DWB cohorts (within or beyond 2 weeks, respectively). Delayed union (12.5 weeks) was statistically derived from established literature. Union times were compared between cohorts. Regression analyses were conducted to investigate possible confounders contributing to delayed union. There were 20 fractures in the EWB cohort and 21 fractures in the DWB cohort. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in healing times (EWB: 25% by 6th week, 55% by the 12th week, 20% delayed; DWB: 33% by 6th week, 43% by 12th week, 24% delayed; P = .819) or delayed unions (EWB, 20% vs DWB, 24%; P > .999). There were no nonunions. No significant confounding risk factors were identified. CONCLUSION: Postoperative protocols using early weightbearing following solid IM screw fixation of Jones fractures appear to be safe and do not delay fracture healing or increase the risk of delayed union. Older age may be a risk for delayed union, but larger studies are needed to evaluate this with appropriate power in light of possible confounders. EWB protocols may allow better functional recovery without compromising outcomes by increasing the risk of delayed union. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic level III, retrospective comparative study.

Biomechanical Comparison of the Influences of 2 Proximal Metatarsal Osteotomies on First Ray Articular Contact Characteristics.

BACKGROUND: An understudied area of proximal first metatarsal osteotomies is the effect on articular contact properties following the surgeries. Potential long-term risks include altered joint mechanics and possible arthritic progression. A biomechanical comparison of articular characteristics of the proximal opening wedge and Ludloff osteotomies was performed in this study. It was hypothesized that the proximal opening wedge osteotomy (POWO) would lead to greater alterations in articular contact properties along the first ray. METHODS: Seven paired fresh-frozen below-knee cadaveric limbs with hallux valgus were selected. Specimens in each pair were tested in the intact state and then randomized to receive either a Ludloff or POWO. A 4-mm opening wedge osteotomy was used in all cases. Loading of the flexor hallucis longus was to 100 N using an instrumented tensioner. A 28-N load was added at the distal phalanx to simulate the ground reaction force. First metatarsophalangeal (MTP) and tarsometatarsal (TMT) articular properties were recorded simultaneously using 2 pressure sensors. For each state, a pressure map was generated and contact area, peak pressure, and center of pressure were calculated. Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to assess statistical significance. RESULTS: Average peak pressure was noted to be elevated at the MTP (4.6 vs 6.9 mPa, P = .04) and TMT (3.3 mPa vs 5.1 mPa, P = .30) joints when comparing the Ludloff and the POWO, respectively. Contact area was also noted to be lower in the POWO relative to the Ludloff for the MTP (86.6 vs 69.1 mm2, P = .30) but not the TMT joints (89.1 vs 88.5 mm2, P = .97). There was a slight plantar-lateral and dorsomedial shift in pressure at the MTP and TMT articulations, respectively, of the POWO relative to the Ludloff. A trend toward decreased contact force within the TMT joint was noted following opening wedge osteotomy relative to the intact state (103.8 vs 113.9 N, P = .31), while forces were elevated at the MTP joint (104.3 vs 96.0 N, P = .63), although not statistically significant. Smaller increases in TMT and MTP joint forces were noted following the Ludloff when compared to the intact state (95.6 vs 93.3 N at TMT and 109.2 vs 103.2 N at MTP). CONCLUSION: POWO can potentially change articular contact characteristics along the TMT and MTP articulations of the first ray. This could possibly lead to altered loading patterns and possible long-term damage vs other osteotomies. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: While it is unlikely that the changes observed with the sizes of the osteotomy commonly used would lead to long-term significant clinical consequences, further study with larger group sizes would be beneficial.

Opioid Consumption Following Foot and Ankle Surgery.

Background Orthopedic surgeons frequently prescribe pain medications during the postoperative period. The efficacy of these medications at alleviating pain after foot/ankle surgery and the quantity of medication required (and conversely, leftover) are unknown. METHODS: Patients undergoing foot/ankle surgery during a 3-month period who met inclusion criteria were surveyed at their first postoperative visit. Information collected included gender, number of prescribed pills remaining, satisfaction with pain control, and willingness to surrender leftover opioids to a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) disposal center. Additional data, including utilization of a perioperative nerve block and type (bony versus nonbony) and anatomic region of procedure, were collected through review of the medical record. All data were analyzed in a retrospective fashion. A total of 171 patients with a mean age of 53.1 ± 15.5 years (range, 18-81 years) were included in the study. RESULTS: The mean number of opioids taken was 27.2 ± 17.5 pills (range, 0-70). The mean number of short-acting opioids and long-acting opioids taken was 21.4 ± 14.8 and 9.2 ± 5.0 pills, respectively. Most (73.5%) patients were satisfied with their pain control. Patients who underwent ankle/hindfoot surgery took more long-acting opioids on average than others ( P = .047). There was not a significant difference in opioid usage between bony and nonbony procedures. Of those with leftover opioids, 63% were willing to surrender them to a DEA disposal center. Patients willing to surrender leftover medications had both more short-acting ( P < .001) and long-acting ( P = .015) opioids leftover than those not willing to surrender them. CONCLUSION: Most patients undergoing foot/ankle surgery had opioids leftover at the first postoperative visit, and most were willing to surrender them. We can adequately treat patients' pain and decrease the number of opioid pills available in the community by decreasing the number of pills prescribed and encouraging disposal of leftovers. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, retrospective case series.

Osteochondral lesions of the talus: size, age, and predictors of outcomes.

In this article, our research on osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs) is summarized, the orthopedic literature is reviewed, and the direction of future research and treatment trends are discussed. Our research has explored the role of lesion size, significance of marrow edema, relationship of patient age, importance of lesion containment, and role of a stable cartilage lesion cap in the prognosis and outcomes of these lesions. We have identified smaller sized lesions, younger patients and contained lesions as independent predictors of success for the operative treatment of OLTs. Our data should facilitate the development of a more comprehensive treatment algorithm to more accurately predict success in operative management of these lesions.

Correlation of MRI edema and clinical outcomes following microfracture of osteochondral lesions of the talus.

BACKGROUND: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an accurate, noninvasive method used to assess healing of osteochondral lesions postoperatively. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the presence of postoperative edema on MRI following osteochondral lesion of the talus (OLT) drilling and to correlate MRI findings with clinical outcome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective chart and MRI review was performed on all OLTs treated by arthroscopic drilling or microfracture. A musculoskeletal radiologist reviewed MRIs performed at a minimum of 9 months postoperatively and the amount of edema present at OLT drilling site was graded. MRI findings were correlated with clinical outcome. RESULTS: A total of 29 patients with 30 OLTs were included. The average patient age at the time of surgery was 31.9 years (range = 13-52 years, SD = 11.87). The average time from arthroscopic drilling to MRI was 81.47 weeks (range 36-242 weeks, SD = 51.31). The intensity of edema was classified as none, mild, moderate, or severe based on MRI findings. Those patients with a moderate or severe edema intensity had inferior clinical outcomes (P = .011). CONCLUSION: The presence of edema on MRI following drilling of OLTs may be a valuable predictor of clinical outcome, with those patients with greater edema intensity having inferior clinical outcomes.

Surgery for diabetic foot infections.

Diabetes mellitus is a common disease in the world today and its prevalence is increasing. Foot and ankle complications, including infection, are the most common reason for hospital admission in patients with diabetes mellitus in the United States and are commonly encountered by the foot and ankle surgeon. Thorough clinical examination with appropriate use of adjunctive laboratory and imaging studies can allow for early diagnosis and treatment, which can improve patient outcomes. Mild infections can often be treated on an outpatient basis with oral antibiotics and local debridement, whereas more severe infections require hospitalization, intravenous antibiotics, and surgical debridement to fully eradicate the infection. Despite proper treatment, amputation is still common in diabetics.