Species-specific escape of Plasmodium sporozoites from oocysts of avian, rodent, and human malarial parasites.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is transmitted when an infected mosquito delivers Plasmodium sporozoites into a vertebrate host. There are many species of Plasmodium and, in general, the infection is host-specific. For example, Plasmodium gallinaceum is an avian parasite, while Plasmodium berghei infects mice. These two parasites have been extensively used as experimental models of malaria transmission. Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are the most important agents of human malaria, a life-threatening disease of global importance. To complete their life cycle, Plasmodium parasites must traverse the mosquito midgut and form an oocyst that will divide continuously. Mature oocysts release thousands of sporozoites into the mosquito haemolymph that must reach the salivary gland to infect a new vertebrate host. The current understanding of the biology of oocyst formation and sporozoite release is mostly based on experimental infections with P. berghei, and the conclusions are generalized to other Plasmodium species that infect humans without further morphological analyses. RESULTS: Here, it is described the microanatomy of sporozoite escape from oocysts of four Plasmodium species: the two laboratory models, P. gallinaceum and P. berghei, and the two main species that cause malaria in humans, P. vivax and P. falciparum. It was found that sporozoites have species-specific mechanisms of escape from the oocyst. The two model species of Plasmodium had a common mechanism, in which the oocyst wall breaks down before sporozoites emerge. In contrast, P. vivax and P. falciparum sporozoites show a dynamic escape mechanism from the oocyst via polarized propulsion. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that Plasmodium species do not share a common mechanism of sporozoite escape, as previously thought, but show complex and species-specific mechanisms. In addition, the knowledge of this phenomenon in human Plasmodium can facilitate transmission-blocking studies and not those ones only based on the murine and avian models.

An overview of malaria transmission from the perspective of Amazon Anopheles vectors.

In the Americas, areas with a high risk of malaria transmission are mainly located in the Amazon Forest, which extends across nine countries. One keystone step to understanding the Plasmodium life cycle in Anopheles species from the Amazon Region is to obtain experimentally infected mosquito vectors. Several attempts to colonise Anopheles species have been conducted, but with only short-lived success or no success at all. In this review, we review the literature on malaria transmission from the perspective of its Amazon vectors. Currently, it is possible to develop experimental Plasmodium vivax infection of the colonised and field-captured vectors in laboratories located close to Amazonian endemic areas. We are also reviewing studies related to the immune response to P. vivax infection of Anopheles aquasalis, a coastal mosquito species. Finally, we discuss the importance of the modulation of Plasmodium infection by the vector microbiota and also consider the anopheline genomes. The establishment of experimental mosquito infections with Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium yoelii and Plasmodium berghei parasites that could provide interesting models for studying malaria in the Amazonian scenario is important. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the parasites in New World vectors is crucial in order to better determine the interaction process and vectorial competence.

Characterization of the complete mitogenome of Anopheles aquasalis, and phylogenetic divergences among Anopheles from diverse geographic zones.

Whole mitogenome sequences (mtDNA) have been exploited for insect ecology studies, using them as molecular markers to reconstruct phylogenies, or to infer phylogeographic relationships and gene flow. Recent Anopheles phylogenomic studies have provided information regarding the time of deep lineage divergences within the genus. Here we report the complete 15,393 bp mtDNA sequences of Anopheles aquasalis, a Neotropical human malaria vector. When comparing its structure and base composition with other relevant and available anopheline mitogenomes, high similarity and conserved genomic features were observed. Furthermore, 22 mtDNA sequences comprising anopheline and Dipteran sibling species were analyzed to reconstruct phylogenies and estimate dates of divergence between taxa. Phylogenetic analysis using complete mtDNA sequences suggests that A. aquasalis diverged from the Anopheles albitarsis complex ~28 million years ago (MYA), and ~38 MYA from Anopheles darlingi. Bayesian analysis suggests that the most recent ancestor of Nyssorhynchus and Anopheles + Cellia was extant ~83 MYA, corroborating current estimates of ~79-100 MYA. Additional sampling and publication of African, Asian, and North American anopheline mitogenomes would improve the resolution of the Anopheles phylogeny and clarify early continental dispersal routes.

Frequency of the CCR5delta32 allele in Brazilians: a study in colorectal cancer and in HTLV-I infection

A observaçäo de que indivíduos homozigotos para uma deleçäo de 32 pares de base no gene que codifica para o receptor 5 de cc-quimiocinas apresentam um menor risco de contrair a infecçäo por HIV-1 levou à investigaçäo da freqüência deste polimorfismo em várias populaçöes mundiais. É importante investigar se o CCR5delta32 é um fator a ser considerado na epidemiologia do HIV em populaçöes individuais. Com estes pressupostos em mente nós estabelecemos a freqüência do CCR5delta32 em uma grande amostra (907 indivíduos näo-relacionados) da populaçäo urbana do sudeste brasileiro, estratificada da seguinte maneira: 322 indivíduos sadios, 354 pacientes com câncer colorretal e 229 doadores de sangue. Os três grupos apresentaram essencialmente a mesma freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32 e a comparaçäo par-a-par näo revelou diferenças significativas. Assim, os nossos resultados podem ser agrupados para fornecer uma estimativa confiável de 0,053 ñ 0,005 da freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32. Os doadores de sangue compreendiam 50 indivíduos soronegativos para HTLV-I, 115 indivíduos assintomáticos por ELISA mas com resultados indeterminados em Western blot, 49 indivíduos soropositivos para HTLV-I mas assintomáticos e 15 indivíduos soropositivos para HTLV-I sintomáticos com mielopatia. Foi observado um sugestivo gradiente decrescente da freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32 nestas categorias. Entretanto, quando aplicamos o teste exato de Fisher, näo emergiram diferenças significativas. Para uma melhor avaliaçäo da influência do alelo CCR5delta32 na probabilidade de infectar-se com HTLV-I ou de desenvolver doença clínica seräo necessários estudos com um maior número de doadores de sangue.