A multidisciplinary approach reveals cryptic diversity in Western Palearctic Tetramorium ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Diversity of ants of the Tetramorium caespitum/impurum complex was investigated in a multidisciplinary study. Focusing on morphologically hardly distinguishable Western Palearctic samples, we demonstrate the genetic and phenotypic diversity, demarcate phylogenetic entities, and discuss the clades in terms of biogeography. Sequences of 1113bp of the mitochondrial COI gene revealed 13 lineages. COII data, worker morphometry and male genitalia morphology corroborated the COI results for seven lineages; the remaining six were disregarded because of small sample size. A comparison with published data on cuticular hydrocarbons showed correspondence. The seven entities show different distribution patterns, though some ranges overlap in Central Europe. Since no major discrepancy between the results of the different disciplines became apparent, we conclude that the seven entities within the T. caespitum/impurum complex represent seven species. Geographical evidence allows the identification of T. caespitum and T. impurum, and we therefore designate neotypes and redescribe the two species in terms of morphology and mtDNA. As the revision of about 50 taxon names would go beyond the scope of this study, we refer to the remaining five species under code names. We discuss our findings in terms of plesiomorphy and convergent evolution by visualizing the mtDNA phylogeny in morphological space.

Response to walnut olfactory and visual cues by the parasitic wasp Diachasmimorpha juglandis.

Diachasmimorpha juglandis is a specialist parasitoid attacking fly larvae in the genus Rhagoletis that feed exclusively on walnut fruit husks. In a free-foraging assay comparing response to uninfested, infested, and mechanically damaged fruits, we first determined that D. juglandis use host feeding damage on the fruit as a cue for host presence. In another free-foraging assay that used artificial walnut models and wind tunnel experiments, D. juglandis distinguished infested from uninfested fruits by using either olfactory or visual cues separately. However, the response rate of wasps in the wind tunnel was raised considerably when visual cues were also available. We analyzed the volatile compounds emitted by cohorts of uninfested, mechanically damaged, and infested fruits 1, 3, 5, 8, and 10 days after oviposition by flies into the infested fruits. Total volatile emissions did not differ significantly among treatments, but quantitative changes in volatiles distinguished infested fruits from uninfested and damaged fruits. The fact that parasitoids did not distinguish between infested and damaged fruits in assays where damage was visible indicates that they rely on visual cues when those are available.

SEED MORPHOMETRICS AND ADAPTIVE GEOGRAPHIC DIFFERENTIATION.

Adaptive geographic differentiation is documented for seed morphology of 36 populations of Heterosperma pinnatum Cav. (Asteraceae), a seed heteromorphic annual plant in the central highlands of Mexico. Achenes (single-seeded fruits) vary continuously within heads but are classified by shape and position as central, intermediate, or peripheral morphs and as having adhesive awns or not. Here we quantify shape as a principal component score contrasting log length and width of achenes. Heads and their variation among populations are described in terms of maximum, minimum, and range of shape scores; the number of achenes per head; quantitative indices of the abruptness of shape shift; where in the head the most abrupt change in shape occurs; and what achene shapes have awns. First and second principal components of these descriptors summarize 86% of among-population variation in achene and head morphology and correlate strongly with percent central achenes per head (%C) and percent of achenes with awns (%A), respectively. Awns are associated with greater dispersibility and achene shape is correlated with speed of dormancy loss. We hypothesized that dispersal morphology would be associated with vegetation attributes indicative of population ephemerality and that dormancy morphology would be associated with precipitation patterns during the early germination season. Morphological distance matrices were calculated using Euclidean distances among populations in %A and %C. Geographic distances among populations were calculated, as were genetic distances based on isozyme frequencies from 29 bands of six enzymes. Vegetation was classified as open or closed and early spring (germination season) and summer precipitation means were determined for each site. Closed vegetation was assumed to provide only ephemeral habitats for H. pinnatum. Partial matrix correlations between morphology and environment controlled for geographic but not genetic distance among sites, since the latter was not significantly correlated with either morphology or geography. A significant relationship was found between %A and closed vegetation, lower spring, and higher summer precipitation. %C was only correlated with lower spring precipitation. Independence of isozyme and morphological traits is interpreted in terms of selection on the latter but not the former.