Twenty-four-hour physical behaviour profiles across type 2 diabetes mellitus subtypes.

AIM: To investigate how 24-h physical behaviours differ across type 2 diabetes (T2DM) subtypes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included participants living with T2DM, enrolled as part of an ongoing observational study. Participants wore an accelerometer for 7 days to quantify physical behaviours across 24 h. We used routinely collected clinical data (age at onset of diabetes, glycated haemoglobin level, homeostatic model assessment index of beta-cell function, homeostatic model assessment index of insulin resistance, body mass index) to replicate four previously identified subtypes (insulin-deficient diabetes [INS-D], insulin-resistant diabetes [INS-R], obesity-related diabetes [OB] and age-related diabetes [AGE]), via k-means clustering. Differences in physical behaviours across the diabetes subtypes were assessed using generalized linear models, with the AGE cluster as the reference. RESULTS: A total of 564 participants were included in this analysis (mean age 63.6 ± 8.4 years, 37.6% female, mean age at diagnosis 53.1 ± 10.0 years). The proportions in each cluster were as follows: INS-D: n = 35, 6.2%; INS-R: n = 88, 15.6%; OB: n = 166, 29.4%; and AGE: n = 275, 48.8%. Compared to the AGE cluster, the OB cluster had a shorter sleep duration (-0.3 h; 95% confidence interval [CI] -0.5, -0.1), lower sleep efficiency (-2%; 95% CI -3, -1), lower total physical activity (-2.9 mg; 95% CI -4.3, -1.6) and less time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (-6.6 min; 95% CI -11.4, -1.7), alongside greater sleep variability (17.9 min; 95% CI 8.2, 27.7) and longer sedentary time (31.9 min; 95% CI 10.5, 53.2). Movement intensity during the most active continuous 10 and 30 min of the day was also lower in the OB cluster. CONCLUSIONS: In individuals living with T2DM, the OB subtype had the lowest levels of physical activity and least favourable sleep profiles. Such behaviours may be suitable targets for personalized therapeutic lifestyle interventions.

Long-term ambient air pollution exposure and prospective change in sedentary behaviour and physical activity in individuals at risk of type 2 diabetes in the UK.

BACKGROUND: Air pollution may be a risk factor for physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour (SED) through discouraging active lifestyles, impairing fitness and contributing to chronic diseases with potentially important consequences for population health. METHODS: Using generalized estimating equations, we examined the associations between long-term particulate matter with diameter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), ≤10 µm (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and annual change in accelerometer-measured SED, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and steps in adults at risk of type 2 diabetes within the Walking Away from Type 2 Diabetes trial. We adjusted for important confounders including social deprivation and measures of the built environment. RESULTS: From 808 participants, 644 had complete data (1605 observations; 64.7% men; mean age 63.86 years). PM2.5, NO2 and PM10 were not associated with change in MVPA/steps but were associated with change in SED, with a 1 ugm-3 increase associated with 6.38 (95% confidence interval: 0.77, 12.00), 1.52 (0.49, 2.54) and 4.48 (0.63, 8.34) adjusted annual change in daily minutes, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term PM2.5, NO2 and PM10 exposures were associated with an annual increase in SED: ~11-22 min/day per year across the sample range of exposure (three standard deviations). Future research should investigate whether interventions to reduce pollution may influence SED.

Validation of an automated sleep detection algorithm using data from multiple accelerometer brands.

To evaluate the criterion validity of an automated sleep detection algorithm applied to data from three research-grade accelerometers worn on each wrist with concurrent laboratory-based polysomnography (PSG). A total of 30 healthy volunteers (mean [SD] age 31.5 [7.2] years, body mass index 25.5 [3.7] kg/m2 ) wore an Axivity, GENEActiv and ActiGraph accelerometer on each wrist during a 1-night PSG assessment. Sleep estimates (sleep period time window [SPT-window], sleep duration, sleep onset and waking time, sleep efficiency, and wake after sleep onset [WASO]) were generated using the automated sleep detection algorithm within the open-source GGIR package. Agreement of sleep estimates from accelerometer data with PSG was determined using pairwise 95% equivalence tests (±10% equivalence zone), intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) with 95% confidence intervals and limits of agreement (LoA). Accelerometer-derived sleep estimates except for WASO were within the 10% equivalence zone of the PSG. Reliability between data from the accelerometers worn on either wrist and PSG was moderate for SPT-window duration (ICCs ≥ 0.65), sleep duration (ICCs ≥ 0.54), and sleep onset (ICCs ≥ 0.61), mostly good for waking time (ICCs ≥ 0.80), but poor for sleep efficiency (ICCs ≥ 0.08) and WASO (ICCs ≥ 0.08). The mean bias between all accelerometer-derived sleep estimates worn on either wrist and PSG were low; however, wide 95% LoA were observed for all sleep estimates, apart from waking time. The automated sleep detection algorithm applied to data from Axivity, GENEActiv and ActiGraph accelerometers, worn on either wrist, provides comparable measures to PSG for SPT-window and sleep duration, sleep onset and waking time, but a poor measure of wake during the sleep period.

Implementation and engagement of the SMART Work & Life sitting reduction intervention: an exploratory analysis on intervention effectiveness.

BACKGROUND: To enhance the impact of interventions, it is important to understand how intervention engagement relates to study outcomes. We report on the level of implementation and engagement with the SMART Work & Life (SWAL) programme (delivered with (SWAL plus desk) and without a height-adjustable desk (SWAL)) and explore the effects of different levels of this on change in daily sitting time in comparison to the control group. METHODS: The extent of intervention delivery by workplace champions and the extent of engagement by champions and participants (staff) with each intervention activity was assessed by training attendance logs, workplace champion withdrawal dates, intervention activities logs and questionnaires. These data were used to assess whether a cluster met defined criteria for low, medium, or high implementation and engagement or none of these. Mixed effects linear regression analyses tested whether change in sitting time varied by: (i) the number of intervention activities implemented and engaged with, and (ii) the percentage of implementation and engagement with all intervention strategies. RESULTS: Workplace champions were recruited for all clusters, with 51/52 (98%) attending training. Overall, 12/27 (44.4%) SWAL and 9/25 (36.0%) SWAL plus desk clusters implemented all main intervention strategies. Across remaining clusters, the level of intervention implementation varied. Those in the SWAL (n = 8 (29.6%) clusters, 80 (32.1%) participants) and SWAL plus desk (n = 5 (20.0%) clusters, 41 (17.1%) participants) intervention groups who implemented and engaged with the most intervention strategies and had the highest percentage of cluster implementation and engagement with all intervention strategies sat for 30.9 (95% CI -53.9 to -7.9, p = 0.01) and 75.6 (95% CI -103.6 to -47.7, p < 0.001) fewer minutes/day respectively compared to the control group at 12 month follow up. These differences were larger than the complete case analysis. The differences in sitting time observed for the medium and low levels were similar to the complete case analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Most intervention strategies were delivered to some extent across the clusters although there was large variation. Superior effects for sitting reduction were seen for those intervention groups who implemented and engaged with the most intervention components and had the highest level of cluster implementation and engagement. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN11618007. Registered on 24 January 2018. https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTNISRCTN11618007 .

Participant and workplace champion experiences of an intervention designed to reduce sitting time in desk-based workers: SMART work & life.

BACKGROUND: A cluster randomised controlled trial demonstrated the effectiveness of the SMART Work & Life (SWAL) behaviour change intervention, with and without a height-adjustable desk, for reducing sitting time in desk-based workers. Staff within organisations volunteered to be trained to facilitate delivery of the SWAL intervention and act as workplace champions. This paper presents the experiences of these champions on the training and intervention delivery, and from participants on their intervention participation. METHODS: Quantitative and qualitative feedback from workplace champions on their training session was collected. Participants provided quantitative feedback via questionnaires at 3 and 12 month follow-up on the intervention strategies (education, group catch ups, sitting less challenges, self-monitoring and prompts, and the height-adjustable desk [SWAL plus desk group only]). Interviews and focus groups were also conducted at 12 month follow-up with workplace champions and participants respectively to gather more detailed feedback. Transcripts were uploaded to NVivo and the constant comparative approach informed the analysis of the interviews and focus groups. RESULTS: Workplace champions rated the training highly with mean scores ranging from 5.3/6 to 5.7/6 for the eight parts. Most participants felt the education increased their awareness of the health consequences of high levels of sitting (SWAL: 90.7%; SWAL plus desk: 88.2%) and motivated them to change their sitting time (SWAL: 77.5%; SWAL plus desk: 85.77%). A high percentage of participants (70%) reported finding the group catch up session helpful and worthwhile. However, focus groups highlighted mixed responses to the group catch-up sessions, sitting less challenges and self-monitoring intervention components. Participants in the SWAL plus desk group felt that having a height-adjustable desk was key in changing their behaviour, with intrinsic as well as time based factors reported as key influences on the height-adjustable desk usage. In both intervention groups, participants reported a range of benefits from the intervention including more energy, less fatigue, an increase in focus, alertness, productivity and concentration as well as less musculoskeletal problems (SWAL plus desk group only). Work-related, interpersonal, personal attributes, physical office environment and physical barriers were identified as barriers when trying to sit less and move more. CONCLUSIONS: Workplace champion and participant feedback on the intervention was largely positive but it is clear that different behaviour change strategies worked for different people indicating that a 'one size fits all' approach may not be appropriate for this type of intervention. The SWAL intervention could be tested in a broader range of organisations following a few minor adaptations based on the champion and participant feedback. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISCRCTN registry (ISRCTN11618007).

Physical activity volume, intensity, and incident cardiovascular disease.

AIMS: The interplay between physical activity (PA) volume and intensity is poorly understood in relation to cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. This study aimed to investigate the role of PA intensity, over and above volume, in relation to incident CVD. METHODS AND RESULTS: Data were from 88 412 UK Biobank middle-aged adults (58% women) without prevalent CVD who wore accelerometers on their dominant wrist for 7 days, from which we estimated total PA energy expenditure (PAEE) using population-specific validation. Cox proportional hazards regressions modelled associations between PAEE (kJ/kg/day) and PA intensity (%MVPA; the fraction of PAEE accumulated from moderate-to-vigorous-intensity PA) with incident CVD (ischaemic heart disease or cerebrovascular disease), adjusted for potential confounders. There were 4068 CVD events during 584 568 person-years of follow-up (median 6.8 years). Higher PAEE and higher %MVPA (adjusted for PAEE) were associated with lower rates of incident CVD. In interaction analyses, CVD rates were 14% (95% confidence interval: 5-23%) lower when MVPA accounted for 20% rather than 10% of 15 kJ/kg/d PAEE; equivalent to converting a 14 min stroll into a brisk 7 min walk. CVD rates did not differ significantly between values of PAEE when the %MVPA was fixed at 10%. However, the lowest CVD rates were observed for combinations of both higher PAEE and %MVPA. CONCLUSION: Reductions in CVD risk may be achievable through higher PA volume and intensity, with the role of moderately intense PA appearing particularly important. This supports multiple approaches or strategies to PA participation, some of which may be more practical or appealing to different individuals.

Accelerometer-Assessed Physical Activity in People with Type 2 Diabetes: Accounting for Sleep when Determining Associations with Markers of Health.

High physical activity levels during wake are beneficial for health, while high movement levels during sleep are detrimental to health. Our aim was to compare the associations of accelerometer-assessed physical activity and sleep disruption with adiposity and fitness using standardized and individualized wake and sleep windows. People (N = 609) with type 2 diabetes wore an accelerometer for up to 8 days. Waist circumference, body fat percentage, Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) test score, sit-to-stands, and resting heart rate were assessed. Physical activity was assessed via the average acceleration and intensity distribution (intensity gradient) over standardized (most active 16 continuous hours (M16h)) and individualized wake windows. Sleep disruption was assessed via the average acceleration over standardized (least active 8 continuous hours (L8h)) and individualized sleep windows. Average acceleration and intensity distribution during the wake window were beneficially associated with adiposity and fitness, while average acceleration during the sleep window was detrimentally associated with adiposity and fitness. Point estimates for the associations were slightly stronger for the standardized than for individualized wake/sleep windows. In conclusion, standardized wake and sleep windows may have stronger associations with health due to capturing variations in sleep durations across individuals, while individualized windows represent a purer measure of wake/sleep behaviors.

Physical Activity Assessed by Wrist and Thigh Worn Accelerometry and Associations with Cardiometabolic Health.

Physical activity is increasingly being captured by accelerometers worn on different body locations. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between physical activity volume (average acceleration), intensity (intensity gradient) and cardiometabolic health when assessed by a thigh-worn and wrist-worn accelerometer. A sample of 659 office workers wore an Axivity AX3 on the non-dominant wrist and an activPAL3 micro on the right thigh concurrently for 24 h a day for 8 days. An average acceleration (proxy for physical activity volume) and intensity gradient (intensity distribution) were calculated from both devices using the open-source raw accelerometer processing software GGIR. Clustered cardiometabolic risk (CMR) was calculated using markers of cardiometabolic health, including waist circumference, triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol, mean arterial pressure and fasting glucose. Linear regression analysis assessed the associations between physical activity volume and intensity gradient with cardiometabolic health. Physical activity volume derived from the thigh-worn activPAL and the wrist-worn Axivity were beneficially associated with CMR and the majority of individual health markers, but associations only remained significant after adjusting for physical activity intensity in the thigh-worn activPAL. Physical activity intensity was associated with CMR score and individual health markers when derived from the wrist-worn Axivity, and these associations were independent of volume. Associations between cardiometabolic health and physical activity volume were similarly captured by the thigh-worn activPAL and the wrist-worn Axivity. However, only the wrist-worn Axivity captured aspects of the intensity distribution associated with cardiometabolic health. This may relate to the reduced range of accelerations detected by the thigh-worn activPAL.

The effectiveness of the Structured Health Intervention For Truckers (SHIFT): a cluster randomised controlled trial (RCT).

BACKGROUND: Long distance heavy goods vehicle (HGV) drivers exhibit higher than nationally representative rates of obesity, and obesity-related co-morbidities, and are underserved in terms of health promotion initiatives. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the multicomponent 'Structured Health Intervention For Truckers' (SHIFT), compared to usual care, at 6- and 16-18-month follow-up. METHODS: We conducted a two-arm cluster RCT in transport sites throughout the Midlands, UK. Outcome measures were assessed at baseline, at 6- and 16-18-month follow-up. Clusters were randomised (1:1) following baseline measurements to either the SHIFT arm or usual practice control arm. The 6-month SHIFT programme included a group-based interactive 6-h education and behaviour change session, health coach support and equipment provision (Fitbit® and resistance bands/balls to facilitate a 'cab workout'). The primary outcome was device-assessed physical activity (mean steps/day) at 6 months. Secondary outcomes included the following: device-assessed sitting, physical activity intensity and sleep; cardiometabolic health, diet, mental wellbeing and work-related psychosocial variables. Data were analysed using mixed-effect linear regression models using a complete-case population. RESULTS: Three hundred eighty-two HGV drivers (mean ± SD age: 48.4 ± 9.4 years, BMI: 30.4 ± 5.1 kg/m2, 99% male) were recruited across 25 clusters (sites) and randomised into either the SHIFT (12 clusters, n = 183) or control (13 clusters, n = 199) arms. At 6 months, 209 (55%) participants provided primary outcome data. Significant differences in mean daily steps were found between groups, in favour of the SHIFT arm (adjusted mean difference: 1008 steps/day, 95% CI: 145-1871, p = 0.022). Favourable differences were also seen in the SHIFT group, relative to the control group, in time spent sitting (- 24 mins/day, 95% CI: - 43 to - 6), and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (6 mins/day, 95% CI: 0.3-11). Differences were not maintained at 16-18 months. No differences were observed between groups in the other secondary outcomes at either follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The SHIFT programme led to a potentially clinically meaningful difference in daily steps, between trial arms, at 6 months. Whilst the longer-term impact is unclear, the programme offers potential to be incorporated into driver training courses to promote activity in this at-risk, underserved and hard-to-reach essential occupational group. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN10483894 (date registered: 01/03/2017).

Relative protein intake and associations with markers of physical function in those with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To examine the independent associations between relative protein intake (g kg-1  day 1 ) and markers of physical function in those with type 2 diabetes, while also comparing with current guidelines for protein intake. METHODS: This analysis reports data from the ongoing Chronotype of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Effect on Glycaemic Control (CODEC) study. Functional assessments included: Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), 60 s sit-to-stand (STS-60), 4-m gait speed, time to rise from a chair (×5) and handgrip strength. Participants also completed a self-reported 4 day diet diary. Regression analyses assessed whether relative protein intake was associated with markers of physical function. Interaction terms assessed whether the associations were modified by sex, age, HbA1c or body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: 413 participants were included (mean ± SD:age = 65.0 ± 7.7 years, 33% female, BMI = 30.6 ± 5.1 kg/m2 ). The average total protein intake was 0.88 ± 0.31 g kg-1  day-1 . 33% of individuals failed to meet the reference nutrient intake for the United Kingdom (≥0.75 g kg-1  day-1 ), and 87% for European recommendations (≥1.2 g kg-1  day-1 ). After adjustment, each 0.5 g/kg of protein intake was associated with an 18.9% (95% CI: 2.3, 35.5) higher SPPB score, 22.7% (1.1, 44.3) more repetitions in STS-60, 21.1% (4.5, 37.7) faster gait speed and 33.2% (16.9, 49.5) lower chair rise time. There were no associations with handgrip strength or any interactions. CONCLUSIONS: Relative protein intake was positively associated with physical function outcomes, even after consideration of total energy intake. As a number of individuals were below the current guidelines, protein intake may be a modifiable factor of importance for people with type 2 diabetes.

The effects of empagliflozin, dietary energy restriction, or both on appetite-regulatory gut peptides in individuals with type 2 diabetes and overweight or obesity: The SEESAW randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

AIM: To assess the impact of the sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor empagliflozin (25 mg once-daily), dietary energy restriction, or both combined, on circulating appetite-regulatory peptides in people with type 2 diabetes (T2D) and overweight or obesity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 68 adults (aged 30-75 years) with T2D (drug naïve or on metformin monotherapy; HbA1c 6.0%-10.0% [42-86 mmol/mol]) and body mass index of 25 kg/m2 or higher were randomized to (a) placebo only, (b) placebo plus diet, (c) empagliflozin only or (d) empagliflozin plus diet for 24 weeks. Dietary energy restriction matched the estimated energy deficit elicited by SGLT2 inhibitor therapy through urinary glucose excretion (~360 kcal/day). The primary outcome was change in postprandial circulating total peptide-YY (PYY) during a 3-hour mixed-meal tolerance test from baseline to 24 weeks. Postprandial total glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), acylated ghrelin and subjective appetite perceptions formed secondary outcomes, along with other key components of energy balance. RESULTS: The mean weight loss in each group at 24 weeks was 0.44, 1.91, 2.22 and 5.74 kg, respectively. The change from baseline to 24 weeks in postprandial total PYY was similar between experimental groups and placebo only (mean difference [95% CI]: -8.6 [-28.6 to 11.4], 13.4 [-6.1 to 33.0] and 1.0 [-18.0 to 19.9] pg/ml in placebo-plus diet, empagliflozin-only and empagliflozin-plus-diet groups, respectively [all P ≥ .18]). Similarly, there was no consistent pattern of difference between groups for postprandial total GLP-1, acylated ghrelin and subjective appetite perceptions. CONCLUSIONS: In people with T2D and overweight or obesity, changes in postprandial appetite-regulatory gut peptides may not underpin the less than predicted weight loss observed with empagliflozin therapy. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT02798744, www. CLINICALTRIALS: gov; 2015-001594-40, www.EudraCT.ema.europa.eu; ISRCTN82062639, www.ISRCTN.org.

The structured health intervention for truckers (SHIFT) cluster randomised controlled trial: a mixed methods process evaluation.

BACKGROUND: This paper presents the mixed methods process evaluation of the randomised controlled trial (RCT) of the Structured Health Intervention For Truckers (SHIFT), a multi-component intervention targeting physical activity and positive lifestyle behaviours in a cohort of 382 truck drivers in the UK. The SHIFT RCT found a significant difference in daily steps between intervention and control groups at 6-months in favour of the intervention participants. METHODS: SHIFT was evaluated within a cluster-RCT and involved 25 transport sites (12 intervention and 13 control sites). Intervention components included an education session, Fitbit, text messages, and cab workout equipment. Participants completed questionnaires at baseline and 6-months follow-up. Semi-structured focus groups/interviews were conducted with drivers (n = 19) and managers (n = 18) from each site, after completion of the final follow-up health assessment (16-18 months post-randomisation). Questionnaires and interviews collected information on fidelity, dose, context, implementation, barriers, sustainability, and contamination. RESULTS: Questionnaire and interview data from intervention participants indicated favourable attitudes towards SHIFT, specifically towards the Fitbit with a high proportion of drivers reporting regularly using it (89.1%). 79.2% of intervention participants attended the education session, which was deemed useful for facilitating improvements in knowledge and behaviour change, dietary changes were predominantly recalled. Despite not being part of the intervention, participants reported that feedback from the health assessments motivated them to change aspects of their lifestyle (intervention = 91.1%, control = 67.5%). The cab workout equipment was used less and spoken unfavourably of in the interviews. The main barriers to a healthy lifestyle at work were reported as long hours and irregular shift patterns. The most suggested improvement for the intervention was more frequent contact with drivers. Managers were positive about the objectives of SHIFT, however almost all mentioned the challenges related to implementation, specifically in smaller sites. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, SHIFT was predominantly implemented as intended, with minimal discrepancies seen between the delivery and protocol. Having said this, transport sites each have distinct characteristics, which may require adaptations to individual settings to encourage participation. Managers and drivers reported enthusiasm and necessity for SHIFT to be included in future Certificate of Professional Competence training. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN10483894 (date registered: 01/03/2017).

Device-assessed sleep and physical activity in individuals recovering from a hospital admission for COVID-19: a multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: The number of individuals recovering from severe COVID-19 is increasing rapidly. However, little is known about physical behaviours that make up the 24-h cycle within these individuals. This study aimed to describe physical behaviours following hospital admission for COVID-19 at eight months post-discharge including associations with acute illness severity and ongoing symptoms. METHODS: One thousand seventy-seven patients with COVID-19 discharged from hospital between March and November 2020 were recruited. Using a 14-day wear protocol, wrist-worn accelerometers were sent to participants after a five-month follow-up assessment. Acute illness severity was assessed by the WHO clinical progression scale, and the severity of ongoing symptoms was assessed using four previously reported data-driven clinical recovery clusters. Two existing control populations of office workers and individuals with type 2 diabetes were comparators. RESULTS: Valid accelerometer data from 253 women and 462 men were included. Women engaged in a mean ± SD of 14.9 ± 14.7 min/day of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), with 12.1 ± 1.7 h/day spent inactive and 7.2 ± 1.1 h/day asleep. The values for men were 21.0 ± 22.3 and 12.6 ± 1.7 h /day and 6.9 ± 1.1 h/day, respectively. Over 60% of women and men did not have any days containing a 30-min bout of MVPA. Variability in sleep timing was approximately 2 h in men and women. More severe acute illness was associated with lower total activity and MVPA in recovery. The very severe recovery cluster was associated with fewer days/week containing continuous bouts of MVPA, longer total sleep time, and higher variability in sleep timing. Patients post-hospitalisation with COVID-19 had lower levels of physical activity, greater sleep variability, and lower sleep efficiency than a similarly aged cohort of office workers or those with type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Those recovering from a hospital admission for COVID-19 have low levels of physical activity and disrupted patterns of sleep several months after discharge. Our comparative cohorts indicate that the long-term impact of COVID-19 on physical behaviours is significant.

Stepping up with GGIR: Validity of step cadence derived from wrist-worn research-grade accelerometers using the verisense step count algorithm.

The Verisense Step Count Algorithm facilitates generation of steps from wrist-worn accelerometers. Based on preliminary evidence suggesting a proportional bias with overestimation at low steps/day, but underestimation at high steps/day, the algorithm parameters have been revised. We aimed to establish validity of the original and revised algorithms relative to waist-worn ActiGraph step cadence. We also assessed whether step cadence was similar across accelerometer brand and wrist. Ninety-eight participants (age: 58.6±11.1 y) undertook six walks (~500 m hard path) at different speeds (cadence: 92.9±9.5-127.9±8.7 steps/min) while wearing three accelerometers on each wrist (Axivity, GENEActiv, ActiGraph) and an ActiGraph on the waist. Of these, 24 participants also undertook one run (~1000 m). Mean bias for the original algorithm was -21 to -26.1 steps/min (95% limits of agreement (LoA) ~±65 steps/min) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) 17-22%. This was unevenly distributed with increasing error as speed increased. Mean bias and 95%LoA were halved with the revised algorithm parameters (~-10 to -12 steps/min, 95%LoA ~30 steps/min, MAPE ~10-12%). Performance was similar across brand and wrist. The revised step algorithm provides a more valid measure of step cadence than the original, with MAPE similar to recently reported wrist-wear summary MAPE (7-11%).

Normative wrist-worn accelerometer values for self-paced walking and running: a walk in the park.

This study aimed to a) determine whether wrist acceleration varies by accelerometer brand, wear location, and age for self-paced "slow", "normal" and "brisk" walking; b) develop normative acceleration values for self-paced walking and running for adults. One-hundred-and-three adults (40-79 years) completed self-paced "slow", "normal" and "brisk" walks, while wearing three accelerometers (GENEActiv, Axivity, ActiGraph) on each wrist. A sub-sample (n = 22) completed a self-paced run. Generalized estimating equations established differences by accelerometer brand, wrist, and age-group (walking only, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69, 70-79 years) for self-paced walking and running. Brand*wrist interactions showed ActiGraph dominant wrist values were ~10% lower than GENEActiv/Axivity values for walking and running, and non-dominant ActiGraph values were ~5% lower for running only (p < 0.001). Acceleration during brisk walking was lower in those aged 70-79 (p < 0.05). Normative acceleration values (non-dominant wrist, all brands; dominant wrist GENEActiv/Axivity) for slow and normal walking were 140 mg and 210 mg. Brisk walking, values were 350 mg in those aged 40-69 years, but 270 mg in those aged 70-79 years. Accelerations >600 mg approximated running. These values facilitate user-friendly interpretation of accelerometer-determined physical activity in large cohort and epidemiological datasets.

Stepping towards More Intuitive Physical Activity Metrics with Wrist-Worn Accelerometry: Validity of an Open-Source Step-Count Algorithm.

Stepping-based targets such as the number of steps per day provide an intuitive and commonly used method of prescribing and self-monitoring physical activity goals. Physical activity surveillance is increasingly being obtained from wrist-worn accelerometers. However, the ability to derive stepping-based metrics from this wear location still lacks validation and open-source methods. This study aimed to assess the concurrent validity of two versions (1. original and 2. optimized) of the Verisense step-count algorithm at estimating step-counts from wrist-worn accelerometry, compared with steps from the thigh-worn activPAL as the comparator. Participants (n = 713), across three datasets, had >24 h continuous concurrent accelerometry wear on the non-dominant wrist and thigh. Compared with activPAL, total daily steps were overestimated by 913 ± 141 (mean bias ± 95% limits of agreement) and 742 ± 150 steps/day with Verisense algorithms 1 and 2, respectively, but moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) steps were underestimated by 2207 ± 145 and 1204 ± 103 steps/day in Verisense algorithms 1 and 2, respectively. In summary, the optimized Verisense algorithm was more accurate in detecting total and MVPA steps. Findings highlight the importance of assessing algorithm performance beyond total step count, as not all steps are equal. The optimized Verisense open-source algorithm presents acceptable accuracy for derivation of stepping-based metrics from wrist-worn accelerometry.

Promoting physical activity in a multi-ethnic population at high risk of diabetes: the 48-month PROPELS randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease but limited evidence exists for the sustained promotion of increased physical activity within diabetes prevention trials. The aim of the study was to investigate the long-term effectiveness of the Walking Away programme, an established group-based behavioural physical activity intervention with pedometer use, when delivered alone or with a supporting mHealth intervention. METHODS: Those at risk of diabetes (nondiabetic hyperglycaemia) were recruited from primary care, 2013-2015, and randomised to (1) Control (information leaflet); (2) Walking Away (WA), a structured group education session followed by annual group-based support; or (3) Walking Away Plus (WAP), comprising WA annual group-based support and an mHealth intervention delivering tailored text messages supported by telephone calls. Follow-up was conducted at 12 and 48 months. The primary outcome was accelerometer measured ambulatory activity (steps/day). Change in primary outcome was analysed using analysis of covariance with adjustment for baseline, randomisation and stratification variables. RESULTS: One thousand three hundred sixty-six individuals were randomised (median age = 61 years, ambulatory activity = 6638 steps/day, women = 49%, ethnic minorities = 28%). Accelerometer data were available for 1017 (74%) individuals at 12 months and 993 (73%) at 48 months. At 12 months, WAP increased their ambulatory activity by 547 (97.5% CI 211, 882) steps/day compared to control and were 1.61 (97.5% CI 1.05, 2.45) times more likely to achieve 150 min/week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Differences were not maintained at 48 months. WA was no different to control at 12 or 48 months. Secondary anthropometric and health outcomes were largely unaltered in both intervention groups apart from small reductions in body weight in WA (~ 1 kg) at 12- and 48-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Combining a pragmatic group-based intervention with text messaging and telephone support resulted in modest changes to physical activity at 12 months, but changes were not maintained at 48 months. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN 83465245 (registered on 14 June 2012).

The impact of COVID-19 restrictions on accelerometer-assessed physical activity and sleep in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: Restrictions during the COVID-19 crisis will have impacted on opportunities to be active. We aimed to (a) quantify the impact of COVID-19 restrictions on accelerometer-assessed physical activity and sleep in people with type 2 diabetes and (b) identify predictors of physical activity during COVID-19 restrictions. METHODS: Participants were from the UK Chronotype of Patients with type 2 diabetes and Effect on Glycaemic Control (CODEC) observational study. Participants wore an accelerometer on their wrist for 8 days before and during COVID-19 restrictions. Accelerometer outcomes included the following: overall physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), time spent inactive, days/week with ≥30-minute continuous MVPA and sleep. Predictors of change in physical activity taken pre-COVID included the following: age, sex, ethnicity, body mass index (BMI), socio-economic status and medical history. RESULTS: In all, 165 participants (age (mean±S.D = 64.2 ± 8.3 years, BMI=31.4 ± 5.4 kg/m2 , 45% women) were included. During restrictions, overall physical activity was lower by 1.7 mg (~800 steps/day) and inactive time 21.9 minutes/day higher, but time in MVPA and sleep did not statistically significantly change. In contrast, the percentage of people with ≥1 day/week with ≥30-minute continuous MVPA was higher (34% cf. 24%). Consistent predictors of lower physical activity and/or higher inactive time were higher BMI and/or being a woman. Being older and/or from ethnic minorities groups was associated with higher inactive time. CONCLUSIONS: Overall physical activity, but not MVPA, was lower in adults with type 2 diabetes during COVID-19 restrictions. Women and individuals who were heavier, older, inactive and/or from ethnic minority groups were most at risk of lower physical activity during restrictions.

Concurrent screen use and cross-sectional association with lifestyle behaviours and psychosocial health in adolescent females.

AIM: To describe concurrent screen use and any relationships with lifestyle behaviours and psychosocial health. METHODS: Participants wore an accelerometer for seven days to calculate physical activity sleep and sedentary time. Screen ownership and use and psychosocial variables were self-reported. Body mass index (BMI) was measured. Relationships were explored using mixed models accounting for school clustering and confounders. RESULTS: In 816 adolescent females (age: 12.8 SD 0.8 years; 20.4% non-white European) use of ≥2 screens concurrently was: 59% after school, 65% in evenings, 36% in bed and 68% at weekends. Compared to no screens those using: ≥1 screens at weekends had lower physical activity; ≥2 screens at the weekend or one/two screen at bed had lower weekend moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; one screen in the evening had lower moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in the after-school and evening period; ≥1 screens after school had higher BMI; and ≥3 screens at the weekend had higher weekend sedentary time. Compared to no screens those using: 1-3 after-school screens had shorter weekday sleep; ≥1 screens after-school had lower time in bed. CONCLUSION: Screen use is linked to lower physical activity, higher BMI and less sleep. These results can inform screen use guidelines.

Comparing 24 h physical activity profiles: Office workers, women with a history of gestational diabetes and people with chronic disease condition(s).

This study demonstrates a novel data-driven method of summarising accelerometer data to profile physical activity in three diverse groups, compared with cut-point determined moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). GGIR was used to generate average daily acceleration, intensity gradient, time in MVPA and MX metrics (acceleration above which the most active X-minutes accumulate) from wrist-worn accelerometer data from three datasets: office-workers (OW, N = 697), women with a history of post-gestational diabetes (PGD, N = 267) and adults with ≥1 chronic disease (CD, N = 1,325). Average acceleration and MVPA were lower in CD, but not PGD, relative to OW (-5.2 mg and -30.7 minutes, respectively, P < 0.001). Both PGD and CD had poorer intensity distributions than OW (P < 0.001). Application of a cut-point to the M30 showed 7%, 17% and 28%, of OW, PGD and CD, respectively, accumulated 30 minutes of brisk walking per day. Radar plots showed OW had higher overall activity than CD. The relatively poor intensity distribution of PGD, despite similar overall activity to OW, was due to accumulation of more light and less higher intensity activity. These data-driven methods identify aspects of activity that differ between groups, which may be missed by cut-point methods alone. Abbreviations: CD: Adults with ≥1 chronic disease; mg: Milli-gravitational unit; MVPA: Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; OW: Office workers; PGD: Women with a history of post-gestational diabetes; VPA: Vigorous physical activity.