The broadening scope of oral mucositis and oral ulcerative mucosal toxicities of anticancer therapies.

Oral mucositis (OM) is a common, highly symptomatic complication of cancer therapy that affects patients' function, quality of life, and ability to tolerate treatment. In certain patients with cancer, OM is associated with increased mortality. Research on the management of OM is ongoing. Oral mucosal toxicities are also reported in targeted and immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies. The objective of this article is to present current knowledge about the epidemiology, pathogenesis, assessment, risk prediction, and current and developing intervention strategies for OM and other ulcerative mucosal toxicities caused by both conventional and evolving forms of cancer therapy.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: Management of oral complications of targeted therapy.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians that concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the management of oral complications of targeted therapy. METHODS: This CPS was developed based on critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. Targeted agents were identified using the National Cancer Institute's list of Food and Drug Administration approved targeted therapy drugs. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets and tables to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: Oral toxicities secondary to targeted therapy include various mucosal conditions, gingival conditions, jawbone disease, dysesthesia, taste change, and dry mouth. For the purpose of this CPS, we focused on oral mucosal conditions, gingival conditions, taste change, and dysesthesia. The treatment of oral toxicities depends on the symptom severity. Topical steroids and immunomodulators are often used as first-line therapy for oral mucosal toxicities. Treatment approaches for oral dysesthesia and taste change primarily revolve around symptoms management. Typically, therapy protocols align with the therapeutic algorithms employed for other neuropathic pain conditions, incorporating topical pharmacological interventions to achieve relief. Other oral toxicity requires a more specific approach. CONCLUSION: Management of oral toxicities from targeted molecular therapies is designed to alleviate patient discomfort and optimize treatment outcomes. Collaboration between medical and oral health professionals is necessary for best management practices.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: Adjuvant bone-modifying agents in primary breast cancer patients - prevention of medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians that concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS raises awareness to the prevention of medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ) in patients with breast cancer treated with adjuvant bone-modifying agents (BMA). METHODS: This CPS was developed based on a critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets and tables to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: In patients treated with adjuvant BMA, dento-alveolar surgery poses a moderate risk for MRONJ that ranges between the high risk for MRONJ in patients with metastatic breast cancer and the low risk for MRONJ in patients with osteoporosis. Existing MRONJ guidelines serve as a starting point for adjuvant BMA use. Urgent procedures should be delivered without delay using the accepted precautions to prevent MRONJ. If elective surgery is considered, the individual risk for MRONJ following surgery should be assessed according to common risk factors. CONCLUSION: Prevention of MRONJ in primary breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant BMA requires risk-benefit assessment; collaboration between the medical team, dental professional, and patient; and patient-specific tailored dental treatment planning. The patient should be informed about this risk. Additional research is needed to define optimal MRONJ care for this population.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: Clinical assessment of salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians that concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the clinical assessment of salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients. METHODS: This CPS was developed based on a critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets and tables to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: The objective assessment of saliva secretion involves an extra- and intra-oral clinical examination while the subjective assessment involves eliciting information on the patient's complaint of xerostomia and its impact on daily functioning. This CPS summarizes the common investigator- and patient-reported instruments used in clinical practice for assessing salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients. CONCLUSION: There is a range of tools to assess salivary gland function in patients undergoing cancer therapy, patients recovering from cancer therapy, or cancer survivors. Clinicians should ideally conduct both objective and subjective measurements to ensure a clear understanding about the status of the patients in order to provide the most appropriate treatment.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: Management of salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians that concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the management of salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients. METHODS: This CPS was developed based on critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets and tables to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: Salivary gland hypofunction and xerostomia in cancer patients are managed by (i) stimulating saliva production of salivary glands with residual secretory capacity or (ii) artificial wetting of the oral and lip surfaces which can be achieved by pharmacological or non-pharmacological interventions. Pharmacological interventions encompass the use of sialagogues and sialolytics, while non-pharmacological interventions involve the use of moistening agents, mechanical, gustatory, or electrostimulation of the salivary glands. Additional treatment modalities may be incorporated in practice based on local availability and the clinician's experience. CONCLUSION: The information presented in this CPS offers clinicians convenient access to the dosages and regimens of different interventions for managing salivary gland hypofunction or xerostomia to facilitate clinical efficiency and conserve valuable time for clinicians.

MASCC/ISOO clinical practice statement: Current understanding on controversies in basic oral care in hemato-oncology and hematopoietic cell transplantation.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians, which concentrates on practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the current understanding of controversies that may arise while providing basic oral care in hemato-oncology patients and hematopoietic cell transplantation recipients (HCT). The CPS will summarize and elucidate controversies that have appeared in the literature and professional discussions. METHODS: This CPS was developed based on a critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: Controversies about the use of chlorhexidine (CHX) oral rinse, mechanical dental plaque removal procedures, the need for toothbrush replacement during phases of low blood cell counts, and the use of lidocaine mouthwash for oral pain were identified and discussed. Consensus about the best standard of care was outlined. CONCLUSION: The following ratifications are applicable for oral care in hemato-oncology patients and patients undergoing HCT: (1) CHX may reduce the risk of oral infections, although it was not found to reduce the risk of oral mucositis. (2) Toothbrushing and proficient interproximal cleaning should not be discouraged during HCT. (3) Toothbrushes do not need to be replaced daily and are preferred over cleansing swabs. (4) Lidocaine rinse, swish and spit, may be considered to palliate oral mucosal pain if applied in a certain manner.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: The risk of secondary oral cancer following hematopoietic cell transplantation.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians that concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the risk of secondary oral cancer following hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). METHODS: This CPS was developed based on critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: Studies described a 7-16-fold higher risk of secondary oral cancer (mainly squamous cell carcinoma) in allogeneic HCT (alloHCT) recipients, particularly in those who developed chronic graft versus host disease (cGVHD). Risk increases over time and is influenced by several risk factors. In autologous HCT, oral cancer risk seemed only slightly elevated. CONCLUSION: Clinicians should be aware of the higher oral cancer risk in alloHCT survivors, and emphasize the importance of lifelong oral cancer surveillance (at least every 6-12 months) and avoiding cancer promoting lifestyle factors in an empathic way, particularly of those with (a history of) cGVHD. Post-HCT for Fanconi anemia or dyskeratosis congenita, education and rigorous follow-up is even more crucial. In case of suspected oral lesions in the presence of oral mucosal cGVHD, a GVHD intervention may facilitate diagnosis. Suspected lesions should be biopsied. More research is needed on the role of HPV in oral cancer post-HCT.

MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement: Management of oral manifestations of chronic graft-versus-host-disease.

PURPOSE: A MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) is aimed at generating a concise tool for clinicians, which concentrates practical information needed for the management of oral complications of cancer patients. This CPS is focused on the management of oral manifestations of chronic graft-versus-host-disease (cGVHD). METHODS: This CPS was developed based on critical evaluation of the literature followed by a structured discussion of a group of leading experts, members of the Oral Care Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The information is presented in the form of succinct bullets and table to generate a short manual about the best standard of care. RESULTS: The treatment goals in oral cGVHD are to relieve pain and xerostomia, improve oral function, prevent secondary infection, prevent deterioration of the dentition, and detect malignant transformation as early as possible. The prevention and treatment measures for oral mucosal lesions, hypofunction of the salivary glands, and sclerodermatous changes in the oral and perioral tissues are detailed, as well as the possible complications and side effects of these interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Patients post allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantations, with cGVHD manifest in the oral and perioral tissues, should be regularly monitored and treated as needed by an oral care practitioner. This CPS provides the clinician with practical tools for examining, preventing, and treating the various sequalae that may affect the oral cavity in these patients.

Recent advances in cancer therapy-associated oral mucositis.

Oral mucositis (OM) is a common and debilitating toxicity of cancer treatments - chemotherapy, radiotherapy, hematopoietic cell transplant, or combinations. OM is associated with severe oral pain and has negative impacts on patient function and quality of life. Additionally, OM has accompanying systemic complications that may have critical implications. These local and systemic consequences can alter cancer treatment, and add an economic burden. This review covers the clinical presentation and course of OM, differential diagnosis, clinical and economic impacts, pathogenesis, risk factors, assessment measures, biomarkers and prediction of OM, management, research advances in the development of new drugs and treatments, and big data.

Clinical use of photobiomodulation for the prevention and treatment of oral mucositis: the real-life experience of MASCC/ISOO members.

AIM: To assess clinical use and patient outcome of photobiomodulation (PBM) for oral mucositis (OM) prevention and treatment among specialized practitioners. METHODS: A poll was emailed to the members of the Mucositis Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The PBM parameters used by the respondents were analyzed using exploratory statistical methods to identify combinations of PBM parameters (patterns) that characterize the variance in the protocols (principal component analysis). RESULTS: Responses were received from 101 MSG members, with 78 providing analyzable data. Most of the responders were dental practitioners or oral medicine specialists. PBM was used by 59% of the responders for OM or targeted therapy stomatitis. Technical parameters varied widely. Most responders used wavelengths ∼650 nm intra-orally. The spot-size and distance from the tissue were the main factors driving the variation. All PBM users noted that PBM relieved pain, either immediately or a delayed effect. High likelihood of pain relief (measured as responder's report of pain relief in 67-100% of patients) was reported by 22% and 19% of PBM users for immediate pain relief and delayed pain relief, respectively. The most common reported barriers to using PBM were financial considerations, time constraints, lack of training or experience and concern about the potential for malignant transformation or increased risk of cancer recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: The use of PBM for OM prevention or treatment is in early phases of adoption in practices, facing some obstacles to implement it. A wide variation in technical parameters was found. Nonetheless, responses indicate that PBM provided pain relief.

Clinicians' experience with topical benzydamine and morphine for the management of oral mucositis: adverse effects and barriers.

INTRODUCTION: Among the evidence-based agents outlined in the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO) mucositis guidelines, benzydamine and morphine are advised for the management of oral mucositis (OM) in certain cancer patients. This study is aimed to collect information from a group of highly experienced healthcare professionals in the field of oral mucositis about their clinical experience with these agents. METHODS: A survey questionnaire about the clinical experience with topical benzydamine and morphine to manage oral mucositis and their related adverse effects (AEs) was electronically distributed to the members of the Mucositis Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. RESULTS: Eighty-eight entries were recorded (response rate 25%), and 54 entries submitted complete questionnaires about the drug-related AE (completion rate 65%) and were used for the data analysis. Of the respondents, 44% and 27.7% prescribed benzydamine and morphine to manage their patients' oral mucositis, respectively. Lack of availability in the respondent's country was the common reason for not prescribing benzydamine and morphine (18.9% and 5.4%, respectively); however, a large portion of the respondents indicated that 'another reason' stopped them from prescribing these agents (51.3% and 73%, respectively). AEs to benzydamine or morphine were observed by 25.9% and 12.9% of respondents, respectively, with mild numbness and tingling as the most common drug-related AE for both agents. CONCLUSION: The use of topical benzydamine and morphine for the management of OM varies between countries. While relatively common, the AEs related to these agents are mild. Mitigating the barriers for prescribing them may increase their use.

Confounding factors in the assessment of oral mucositis in head and neck cancer.

Treatment of locally advanced head and neck carcinoma not amenable for surgical resection or resected with high-risk features is usually based on (chemo-)radiation treatment. Oral mucositis represents one of the main side effects of (chemo-)radiation, with an important impact on quality of life and causing approximately 20% of early interruption of treatment, leading to a suboptimal dose administered. Treatment and prevention of oral mucositis have a central role in the therapeutic pathways of head and neck cancer patients but remains quite challenging. Although extensive research is conducted to identify interventions for the management of mucositis, very few interventions had sufficient evidence to generate an international expert consensus. This may be partially explained by confounding factors that could influence the development and assessment of oral mucositis. Little is known about the confounding factors of oral mucositis, which, if not well balanced in an experimental study, could lead to non-solid results. The current paper aims to review the main oral mucositis confounding factors related to head and neck cancer patients.

The impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on supportive care for oral mucositis: current concepts and practice.

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) markedly affected the way healthcare professionals approach patients with cancer worldwide, not only in terms of therapeutic decision-making but also in terms of supportive care. With the rapid appearance of signs and symptoms and the need of close re-assessment, standard management of oral mucositis has been challenged by physical distancing and limited resources due to the global crisis. Building on the clinical experience developed during the acute phase by members of the Mucositis Study Group of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO), the implications of COVID-19 on the prevention, assessment, and treatment of mucositis are critically reported. Inspired by the restructuring of supportive care measures in response to the pandemic, suggestions for new models of approaching acute side effects are also discussed.

Oral white lesion in patients post-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a case series demonstrating the diagnostic dilemma.

The current National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus paper excluded "white hyperkeratotic plaque" from the diagnostic criteria for oral chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) in order to ensure malignant transformation is not overlooked. Therefore, an isolated oral white plaque is recommended to be subjected to biopsy and pathologic examination. The cases described in this paper shed a new light on the clinical approach to oral white plaque post-hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. The objectives of this article are to demonstrate that a white plaque does not contradict a diagnosis of oral cGVHD, and to highlight the clinical considerations for taking a biopsy.

Oral verruciform xanthoma in chronic graft-versus-host disease patients.

BACKGROUND: Verruciform xanthoma (VX) is an uncommon benign epithelial lesion which mainly appears in inflamed oral epithelium. In this study, our aim was to present new cases of oral VX (OVX) in chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) and review the literature. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of cGVHD patients (2012-2019) to reveal cases of OVX. The demographics, medical background, clinical presentation, treatment provided, and follow-up were obtained. Additionally, Medline was searched using the terms "graft-versus-host disease," "verruciform xanthoma," and "oral." Of the articles, the above-mentioned demographic and clinical features were retrieved. RESULTS: The patient pool included 133 oral cGVHD patients. Three cGVHD patients (males, aged 15-49 years, post-hematologic malignancy) were diagnosed with OVX. All patients had oral mucosal lichenoid lesions, but not in close proximity to the VX lesion. Medline searches revealed 9 cases of OVX in cGVHD patients reported in the literature. Eleven of the 12 patients had oral mucosal lichenoid lesions. Four patients had multiple OVX lesions. All lesions were asymptomatic. Six patients had lesions in the masticatory mucosa (hard palate and gingiva) and 4 patients had lesions in the buccal mucosa. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest published OVX in cGVHD series, including 12 patients. It appears that despite the higher prevalence in cGVHD patients relative to the general population, OVXs do not necessarily develop in sites with lichenoid lesions. It is advised that clinicians be familiar with the clinical and histological features in order to consider OVX in the differential diagnosis of oral lesions in cGVHD patients.

MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines for the management of mucositis: sub-analysis of current interventions for the management of oral mucositis in pediatric cancer patients.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this sub-analysis was to highlight the MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines for the management of oral mucositis (OM) in pediatric patients and to present unique considerations in this patient population. METHODS: This sub-analysis of the pediatric patient population is based on the systematic review conducted by the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISSO) published in 2019/2020. Studies were scored and assigned a level of evidence based on previously published criteria. Data regarding adverse effects and compliance was collected from the original publications. RESULTS: A total of 45 papers were included and assessed in this sub-analysis, including 21 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Chewing gum was demonstrated to be not effective in preventing OM in pediatric cancer patients in 2 RCTs. The efficacy of all other interventions could not be determined based on the available literature. CONCLUSION: There is limited or conflicting evidence about interventions for the management of OM in pediatric cancer patients, except for chewing gum which was ineffective for prevention. Therefore, currently, data from adult studies may need to be extrapolated for the management of pediatric patients. Honey and photobiomodulation therapy in this patient population had encouraging potential. Implementation of a basic oral care protocol is advised amid lack of high level of evidence studies.

MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines for the management of mucositis secondary to cancer therapy.

BACKGROUND: Mucositis is a significant toxicity of cancer therapy with numerous systemic sequelae. The goal of this systematic review was to update the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer and International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO) Clinical Practice Guidelines for the management of mucositis. METHODS: The literature was reviewed systematically to identify interventions for mucositis. Studies were rated according to the presence of major and minor flaws according to previously published criteria. The body of evidence for each intervention and in each treatment setting was assigned a level of evidence based on previously published criteria. Guidelines were developed based on the level of evidence, with 3 possible guideline determinations: recommendation, suggestion, or no guideline possible. RESULTS: The guideline covers evidence from 1197 publications related to oral or gastrointestinal mucositis. Thirteen new guidelines were developed for or against the use of various interventions in specific treatment settings, and 11 previous guidelines were confirmed after aa review of new evidence. Thirteen previously established guidelines were carried over because there was no new evidence for these interventions. CONCLUSIONS: The updated MASCC/ISOO Clinical Practice Guidelines for mucositis provide professional health caregivers with a clinical setting-specific, evidence-based tool to help with the management of mucositis in patients who have cancer.

Systematic review of oral cryotherapy for the management of oral mucositis in cancer patients and clinical practice guidelines.

PURPOSE: To update the 2013 Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO) clinical practice guidelines on oral cryotherapy for the management of oral mucositis (OM) caused by cancer therapies. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted by the Mucositis Study Group of MASCC/ISOO. The evidence for each intervention for specific cancer treatment modalities was assigned a level of evidence (LoE). The findings were added to the database used to develop the 2013 MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines. Based on the LoE, the guidelines were set as: recommendation, suggestion, or no guideline possible. RESULTS: A total of 114 papers were identified: 44 from PubMed and 70 from Web of Science. After abstract triage and merging with the 2013 database, 36 papers were reviewed. The LoE for prevention of OM with oral cryotherapy in patients undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant using high-dose melphalan conditioning protocols was upgraded, and the guideline changed to recommendation. Additionally, the recommendation for prevention of OM with oral cryotherapy in patients receiving bolus 5-fluorouracil for the treatment of solid tumors was confirmed. No guidelines were possible for other clinical settings. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence supports recommendations for the use of oral cryotherapy for the prevention of OM for either (i) patients undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplant with high-dose melphalan conditioning protocols or (ii) patients receiving bolus 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy.

Systematic review of antimicrobials, mucosal coating agents, anesthetics, and analgesics for the management of oral mucositis in cancer patients and clinical practice guidelines.

PURPOSE: To update the clinical practice guidelines for the use of antimicrobials, mucosal coating agents, anesthetics, and analgesics for the prevention and/or treatment of oral mucositis (OM). METHODS: A systematic review was conducted by the Mucositis Study Group of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO). The body of evidence for each intervention, in each cancer treatment setting, was assigned an evidence level. The findings were added to the database used to develop the 2014 MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines. Based on the evidence level, the following guidelines were determined: Recommendation, Suggestion, and No Guideline Possible. RESULTS: A total of 9 new papers were identified within the scope of this section, adding to the 62 papers reviewed in this section previously. A new Suggestion was made for topical 0.2% morphine for the treatment of OM-associated pain in head and neck (H&N) cancer patients treated with RT-CT (modification of previous guideline). A previous Recommendation against the use of sucralfate-combined systemic and topical formulation in the prevention of OM in solid cancer treatment with CT was changed from Recommendation Against to No Guideline Possible. Suggestion for doxepin and fentanyl for the treatment of mucositis-associated pain in H&N cancer patients was changed to No Guideline Possible. CONCLUSIONS: Of the agents studied for the management of OM in this paper, the evidence supports a Suggestion in favor of topical morphine 0.2% in H&N cancer patients treated with RT-CT for the treatment of OM-associated pain.

Systematic review of growth factors and cytokines for the management of oral mucositis in cancer patients and clinical practice guidelines.

PURPOSE: To update the clinical practice guidelines for the use of growth factors and cytokines for the prevention and/or treatment of oral mucositis (OM). METHODS: A systematic review was conducted by the Mucositis Study Group of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer/International Society of Oral Oncology (MASCC/ISOO). The body of evidence for each intervention, in each cancer treatment setting, was assigned an evidence level. The findings were added to the database used to develop the 2014 MASCC/ISOO clinical practice guidelines. Based on the evidence level, the following guidelines were determined: recommendation, suggestion, and no guideline possible. RESULTS: A total of 15 new papers were identified within the scope of this section and were merged with 51 papers that were reviewed in the previous guidelines update. Of these, 14, 5, 13, 2, and 1 were randomized controlled trials about KGF-1, G-CSF, GM-CSF, EGF, and erythropoietin, respectively. For the remaining agents there were no new RCTs. The previous recommendation for intravenous KGF-1 in patients undergoing autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) conditioned with high-dose chemotherapy and TBI-based regimens is confirmed. The previous suggestion against the use of topical GM-CSF for the prevention of OM in the setting of high-dose chemotherapy followed by autologous or allogeneic stem cell transplantation remains unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: Of the growth factors and cytokines studied for the management of OM, the evidence supports a recommendation in favor of KGF-1 and a suggestion against GM-CSF in certain clinical settings.