Pseudacteon Phorid Flies: Host Specificity and Impacts on Solenopsis Fire Ants.

Human commerce has resulted in the spread of the imported fire ants, Solenopsis species, worldwide. Six species of parasitic Pseudacteon phorid flies that are highly host specific to the Solenopsis saevissima complex of Solenopsis fire ants have been successfully released in the southern United States. The presence of Pseudacteon phorid flies, in addition to having direct mortality effects on their host ants, modifies foraging behavior and disrupts interspecific competition between host species and other ant species in the community. Fire ant workers have evolved effective methods to cope with parasitism pressure, which may relieve population-level impacts of introduced phorid flies. This review focuses on the mechanisms underlying host location, host preference, and host-size selection of Pseudacteon phorid flies and highlights their direct and indirect effects on fire ant populations. Knowledge gained from parasitoid-ant interactions will enhance use of natural enemies as biological control agents for invasive social insects.

On the formation of a protic ionic liquid in nature.

The practical utility of ionic liquids (ILs) makes the absence (heretofore) of reported examples from nature quite puzzling, given the facility with which nature produces many other types of exotic but utilitarian substances. In that vein, we report here the identification and characterization of a naturally occurring protic IL. It can be formed during confrontations between the ants S. invicta and N. fulva. After being sprayed with alkaloid-based S. invicta venom, N. fulva detoxifies by grooming with its own venom, formic acid. The mixture is a viscous liquid manifestly different from either of the constituents. Further, we find that the change results as a consequence of formic acid protonation of the N centers of the S. invicta venom alkaloids. The resulting mixed-cation ammonium formate milieu has properties consistent with its classification as a protic IL.

Species and sexual differences in antennal lobe architecture and glomerular organization in two parasitoids with different degree of host specificity, Microplitis croceipes and Cotesia marginiventris.

The endoparasitic wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Microplitis croceipes (specialist) and Cotesia marginiventris (generalist), are parasitoids of lepidopteran larvae and differ in their degree of host specificity. Recent studies have reported key differences between the two species in the abundance of antennal olfactory sensilla and their response to host-related volatiles. Here, we have compared antennal lobe architecture and glomerular organization in the two parasitoid species by using a combination of axonal tract tracing techniques and confocal microscopy. In M. croceipes, the medial half of the antennal lobe is larger with a greater number of glomeruli compared with the lateral half, whereas in C. marginiventris, the lateral half is larger than the median half. The volume of the antennal lobe is approximately 2.5 times greater in M. croceipes than in C. marginiventris. However, the number of glomeruli per antennal lobe is only slightly higher in M. croceipes (females: 219-222; males: 220-224) than in C. marginiventris (females: 192-194; males: 193-196). A comparison of males and females within each species demonstrated a striking sexual difference in terms of an enlarged glomerulus (macroglomerulus or MG) at the entrance of the antennal nerve and of a complex of 3-4 MG (CMG) in the posterior region of the antennal lobe of males of both species. Being specific to males, both the MG and CMG might be involved in the detection of female-related odor.

Potential of the oothecal parasitoid Aprostocetus hagenowii (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) as a biological control agent for the Turkestan cockroach (Blattodea: Blattidae).

The Turkestan cockroach, Blatta lateralis (Walker), is a peridomestic pest of growing concern in the US Southwest. The parasitoid Aprostocetus hagenowii (Ratzburg) is used in IPM programs targeting other blattid cockroach species and may aid in B. lateralis suppression. Information about the ability of A. hagenowii to parasitize B. lateralis is lacking. A no-choice host-switching experiment was used to test A. hagenowii acceptance of B. lateralis oothecae, and a multigenerational no-choice experiment was used to determine the suitability of B. lateralis as a host for A. hagenowii over several months of rearing. Periplaneta americana (L.) (Blattodea: Blattidae), the preferred host of A. hagenowii, and Blatta orientalis L., a known host and relative of B. lateralis, were used for comparison. Development time was similar among hosts and generations (P > 0.05). Parasitism success and proportion of female progeny declined significantly with subsequent generations on both Blatta spp. (parasitism success: χ2 = 14.916; df = 2; P = 0.001; proportion female: H = 6.364; df = 2; P = 0.041). These results suggest that A. hagenowii may initially aid in suppression of B. lateralis, but an overall decline in fitness will require repeated releases or provisioning of P. americana oothecae. Development of a strain more suitable for B. lateralis control may be possible via selection from laboratory strains or through use of wild A. hagenowii from areas where B. lateralis is present.

Effects of Food Source Availability, Host Egg:Parasitoid Ratios, and Host Exposure Times on the Developmental Biology of Megacopta cribraria Egg Parasitoids.

Parasitoids forage for hosts in dynamic ecosystems and generally have a short period of time to access hosts. The current study examined the optimal reproductive attributes of two egg parasitoids, Paratelenomus saccharalis Dodd (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), of the kudzu bug, Megacopta cribraria Fabricius (Hemiptera: Plataspidae). The proportion of O. nezarae and P. saccharalis adult offspring that emerged from M. cribraria eggs and the sex ratio of the parasitoid offspring were compared among treatments for the effects of different adult parasitoid food sources, host egg-to-adult parasitoid ratios, and host exposure times. Our results suggest that honey solution as a food source, a 21:7 host-to-parasitoid ratio, and three-to-five days of exposure time optimized the production of female O. nezarae offspring. For P. saccharalis, honey solution as a food source, a 21:7 host-to-parasitoid ratio, and one day were optimal for maximizing female offspring production. These findings provide new information about the biology of these egg parasitoids.

Similarity in venom alkaloid chemistry of alate queens of imported fire ants: implication for hybridization between Solenopsis richteri and S. invicta in the Southern United States.

Both cis- and trans-2-methyl-6-undecylpiperidines, MC11P, have been previously reported as the major components of the venom of alate queens of the imported fire ants, Solenopsis richteri (black) and S. invicta (red). To identify the minor components of venom alkaloids from alate queens and compare the venom alkaloid chemistry of alate queen of their hybrid (S. richteri×S. invicta) with that of the two parental fire ant species (S. richteri and S. invicta), silica-gel short-column chromatography was utilized for separating cis-stereoisomers of venom alkaloids from trans-stereoisomers. GC/MS Analyses of venom-alkaloid chemistry of alate queens demonstrated that fewer alkaloid peaks were detected in the chromatograms of the alate queens compared to those of workers. Three new compounds, 7, 12, and 13, were detected as minor components in the venom of alate queens of all three fire ant species. Alate queens of hybrid fire ants showed cis- and trans-alkaloid patterns similar to those of the parental species. Similarity in venom-alkaloid chemistry of alate queens of S. richteri and S. invicta, and their hybrid may indicate their reproductive compatibility in the hybrid zone in southern United States, where all three species occur sympatrically.

Direct and Indirect Competitive Interactions between Ooencyrtus nezarae and Paratelenomus saccharalis Parasitizing Megacopta cribraria Egg Patches.

The present study investigated egg parasitoid interspecific interactions between a generalist, Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and a specialist, Paratelenomus saccharalis Dodd (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) in a laboratory setting using kudzu bug (Megacopta cribraria Fabricius, (Hemiptera: Plataspidae)) eggs as their shared host. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the emergence of wasps from parasitized hosts after the simultaneous and sequential release of wasps, monitor aggressive behavior of P. saccharalis, and quantify intraguild predation of O. nezarae larvae on heterospecific P. saccharalis larvae. Results showed that total host egg parasitism was higher when both wasps were released simultaneously than if wasps were released sequentially. Ooencyrtus nezarae produced more total offspring than P. saccharalis in all sequential/simultaneous treatments but produced male offspring in most cases. In the aggressive behavioral experiment, specialist, P. saccharalis used head butting to fight O. nezarae, but no other aggressions were observed. In an experiment examining intraguild predation, O. nezarae was able to develop in host eggs parasitized by P. saccharalis four days earlier, acting as a superior larval competitor. These findings shed light on the potential interspecific interactions between O. nezarae and P. saccharalis, which may determine their relative abundance and influence their compatibility in kudzu bug biological control programs.

Kudzu Bug (Megacopta cribraria) and Associated Egg Parasitoids Emergence Rates in Alabama are Predicted by Weather Indices.

The kudzu bug, Megacopta cribraria (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Plataspidae), is a major economic pest of soybean in the southeastern United States. With climate warming, this pest is expected to move northward and cause additional crop damage. Parasitoid biocontrol is a potential method of integrated pest management for kudzu bug. Two species of egg parasitoid wasps have been observed emerging from kudzu bug egg masses in the southeastern United States: Paratelenomus saccharalis (Dodd) (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Ooencyrtus nezarae (Ishii) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). This paper used egg mass emergence data collected between 2018 and 2020 in Alabama soybean fields and compared the data to weather indices. Indices included the number of days with minimum temperatures below zero, accumulated rainfall (mm m-2), as well as species specific metrics of accumulated growing degree days, accumulated daily minimum temperature (°C), and accumulated daily maximum temperature (°C). Emergence of the generalist parasitoid, O. nezarae, was highly correlated with kudzu bug nymph abundance, accumulated degree day, accumulated daily temperatures, and precipitation. Ooencyrtus nezarae emergence was predicted in a stepwise regression equation by aggregated degree day and date of collection, which indicates that seasonality may be a predictor of its presence. In contrast, collections of the specialist parasitoid, P. saccharalis, were near-zero throughout the collection period, suggesting that this species may no longer be a usable biocontrol agent in the southeastern United States as a result of external limiting factors.

Field evaluation of traps and lures for monitoring plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Alabama peaches.

The plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a key pest of peaches, Prunus persica (L.) Batsch, in North America. We evaluated the effectiveness of two widely used trap types (pyramid versus Circle traps) and commercially available synthetic lures for monitoring the pest in two peach orchards in Alabama during 2008 and 2009. The lures evaluated alone or in combinations included benzaldehyde (BZ) (a component of fruit odor), plum essence (PE) (a mixture of fruit odor extracted from food grade plum), and grandisoic acid (GA) (a male-produced aggregation pheromone of plum curculio). In general, pyramid traps captured more plum curculio adults than Circle traps, particularly during the first generation. Trap performance was improved numerically by the addition of BZ, PE, or GA alone (single lures) and was significantly enhanced by the addition of the combined BZ + PE lure. In both first and second generations, the combined BZ + PE lure increased plum curculio captures (significant in some trials) over unbaited traps and traps baited with single lures by approximately 1.5-21-fold and had the highest response indices (RIs), which is indicative of high attractiveness. The combined BZ + GA lure and the three-component BZ + PE + GA lure also captured numerically more plum curculio adults than unbaited traps or traps baited with single lures but the differences were rarely significant. Analysis of ratios of interaction suggests the possibility of synergistic interactions between BZ and PE and between BZ and GA; however, additive effects were concluded due to high sample errors. These results are discussed in relation to the physicochemical properties of the lures and the potential of using baited monitoring traps to aid plum curculio management decisions in peach orchards.

Comparative Cutaneous Water Loss and Desiccation Tolerance of Four Solenopsis spp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the Southeastern United States.

The high surface area to volume ratio of terrestrial insects makes them highly susceptible to desiccation mainly through the cuticle. Cuticular permeability (CP) is usually the most important factor limiting water loss in terrestrial insects. Water loss rate, percentage of total body water (%TBW) content, CP, and desiccation tolerance were investigated in workers of four Solenopsis species in the southeastern USA. We hypothesized that tropical/subtropical ants (S. invicta and S. geminata) will have lower CP values and tolerate higher levels of desiccation than temperate ants (S. richteri and S. invicta × S. richteri). The %TBW content was similar among species. Solenopsis invicta had a 1.3-fold and 1.1-fold lower CP value than S. invicta × S. richteri and S. richteri, respectively. Solenopsis geminata had a 1.3-fold lower CP value than S. invicta × S. richteri, and a 1.2-fold lower CP value than S. richteri. The LT50 values (lethal time to kill 50% of the population) ranged from 1.5 h (small S. geminata) to 8.5 h (large S. invicta). Desiccation tolerance ranged between 36 and 50 %TBW lost at death and was not related to a species' location of origin. This study is the first report of water relations of S. invicta × S. richteri. It demonstrates that desiccation stress differentially can affect the survival of different Solenopsis species and implies that environmental stress can affect the distribution of these species in the southeastern USA.

Biting Rates and Onchocerca Infectivity Status of Black Flies from the Simulium damnosum Complex (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Osun State, Nigeria.

The Simulium damnosum Theobald complex transmits Onchocerca volvulus Leuckart (Spirurida: Onchocercidae), the causative agent of onchocerciasis. Recent evidence suggests that control efforts have strongly suppressed parasite populations, but vector surveillance is needed in parts of Africa where the disease remains endemic. Here, studies on biting rates and infectivity status of suspected vector species were conducted in three onchocerciasis-endemic areas, namely Iwo, Ede, and Obokun, in Osun State, Nigeria. A total of 3,035 black flies were collected between October 2014 and September 2016, and examined for parity and parasites using standard methods. A separate collection of 2,000 black flies was pool-screened for infectivity using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the O-150 marker. Results showed that parous flies were significantly less common than nulliparous flies with overall parous rates of 8.02% in Iwo and 35.38% in Ede at the end of the study period. Obokun had a parous rate of 22.22% obtained in the first year only. None of the dissected parous flies were infected with O. volvulus and PCR assays showed no amplification of O-150 O. volvulus-specific repeats in head and body pools. However, annual biting rates exceeded the World Health Organization threshold of 1,000 bites/person/yr. Thus it appears that, with such high rates of biting, even low levels of vector infection can sustain onchocerciasis in African communities.

Re-investigation of venom chemistry of Solenopsis fire ants. I. Identification of novel alkaloids in S. richteri.

Dialkylpiperidines are characteristic of fire ants in the genus Solenopsis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Workers of the black imported fire ant, S. richteri produce cis and trans stereoisomers of 2,6-dialkylpiperidines with the trans isomer predominating. We used silica gel short column chromatography to separate both stereoisomers (cis and trans) of S. richteri venom alkaloids and coupled gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify novel minor components. The identities of various peaks in GC-MS analyses of the venom fractions were based on relative retention times and mass spectral data. GC profiles verified the presence of both cis and trans stereoisomers of C15:1 and C15 in S. richteri. The GC trace of the cis stereoisomers of S. richteri alkaloids was presented for the first time. In addition to the previously described components of S. richteri venom, seven novel 2,6-dialkyl-delta1,2-piperideines and 2,6-dialkyl-delta1,6-piperideines were detected. The chemical identities of these minor components were determined by comparing with fragmentations of known compounds. Possible biosynthetic pathways for the production of cis and trans solenopsins by S. richteri are discussed.

Re-investigation of venom chemistry of Solenopsis fire ants. II. Identification of novel alkaloids in S. invicta.

The venom of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is dominated by trans stereoisomers of 2,6-dialkylpiperidines. cis Stereoisomers of alkaloids in the venom of S. invicta were separated from trans stereoisomers by using silica gel short column chromatography and identified by coupled gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Seven pairs of cis and trans sterecoisomers were identified based on relative retention times and mass spectral data. The GC trace of the cis stereoisomers of S. invicta alkaloids was presented for the first time. In addition to the previously described 2,6-dialkylpiperideines, eleven novel 2,6-dialkyl-delta1,2-piperideines and 2,6-dialkyl-delta1,6-piperideines were identified from S. invicta venom. The results are discussed in relation to the evolutionary significance of these piperideines and their possible biosynthetic pathways in Solenopsis fire ants.

Fire ant venom alkaloids act as key attractants for the parasitic phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis (Diptera: Phoridae).

The phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier, is an introduced parasitoid of imported fire ants, Solenopsis spp., in the USA. Although the assumption that phorid flies use fire ant alarm pheromones for host location is probably true, we demonstrated in a previous study the possible involvement of other ant semiochemicals in the response of P. tricuspis to fire ants. This study was conducted to determine the glandular sources and identity of the semiochemicals mediating this interaction. First, we tested the electroantennogram response of P. tricuspis to extracts of key body parts and glands of workers of the red imported fire ant, S. invicta Buren. The results confirm that the poison (venom) gland/sac is the key source of compounds which elicited strong antennal activity in P. tricuspis. Follow-up studies were conducted by using a combination of bioassay-guided fractionation and behavioral bioassays to test the hypothesis that attraction of this parasitoid to fire ants is mediated by venom alkaloids. The results confirm the response of P. tricuspis to physiologically relevant amounts of the two venom alkaloid fractions (cis and trans alkaloid fractions) of S. invicta. Further analysis by coupled gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection revealed nine venom alkaloid components including two novel 2,6-dialkylpiperideines that elicited significant antennal activity in P. tricuspis. This is the first demonstration of the role of venom alkaloids of ants as attractants for their natural enemies. We propose a semiochemical-mediated host location mechanism for P. tricuspis involving both alarm pheromones and venom alkaloids. The ecological significance of these findings, including the attraction of male P. tricuspis to fire ant venom alkaloids, possibly for mate location, is discussed.

Host preference and development of Leptoglossus zonatus (Hemiptera: Coreidae) on satsuma mandarin.

Leptoglossus zonatus (Dallas) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) has recently emerged as a key pest of satsuma mandarin, Citrus unshiu Marcovitch, and other fruit crops in the Gulf Coast region of the United States. Studies were conducted under laboratory conditions (25 +/- 2 degrees C, 50 +/- 10% RH, and a photoperiod of 14:10 [L:D] h) to investigate host preference and suitability of satsuma fruit as host for this pest. Three separate multiple choice experiments were performed to compare attraction of L. zonatus nymphs and adults to the fruit of tomato, Solanum lycopersicum L.; satsuma mandarin; peach, Prunus persica (L.) Batsch; kumquat (Fortunella spp.); and lemon, Citrus limon (L.) Burm. F. Results of all three experiments clearly showed that tomato was the most preferred by both the nymphs and adults, with satsuma a distant second. Attraction to tomato and satsuma fruit was not due mainly to color but mediated by host volatile semiochemicals (kairomones). Developmental experiments with L. zonatus on satsuma fruit suggest that it is a suitable host that can maintain modest to high populations of the pest. Approximately 39 eggs were deposited per female on satsuma fruit with a hatch rate of 98%. Total developmental time from egg through the fifth nymphal stage was approximately = 50 d. High survivorship was recorded for all stages and ranged from 100% for the fourth instars to approximately = 89.1% for second instars. Cumulative survivorship from eggs through the fifth stage was 75.6%. Sex ratio (female:male) of emerged adults was 1:1.03, and female longevity (approximately = 73 d) was significantly greater than male longevity (57 d). Other aspects of the developmental biology of L. zonatus on satsuma are described, and the results are discussed in relation to the field ecology of the pest.

First record of Trissolcus basalis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) parasitizing Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in the United States.

BACKGROUND: A parasitoid wasp, Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston), was recorded parasitizing eggs of the invasive stink bug Halyomorpha halys (Stål) in the United States. This is the first record of this species parasitizing fresh and frozen eggs of H. halys in the United States. NEW INFORMATION: First record of Trissolcus basalis parasitizing Halyomorpha halys eggs in the United States.

New record of Trissolcus solocis (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) parasitising Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in the United States of America.

BACKGROUND: A parasitoid wasp, Trissolcus solocis Johnson, was recorded parasitising eggs of the invasive stink bug Halyomorpha halys (Stål), in the United States. This is the first record of this species parasitising eggs of H. halys. NEW INFORMATION: First record of Trissolcus solocis parasitising Halyomorpha halys eggs in the United States and first record of T. solocis in Alabama.

Antennal sensilla of the decapitating phorid fly, Pseudacteon tricuspis (Diptera: Phoridae).

Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier is a parasitic decapitating phorid fly (Diptera: Phoridae), which has been released in the southern United States in the last decade for biological control of invasive imported fire ants, Solenopsis spp. In a previous study, we demonstrated that P. tricuspis uses fire ant semiochemicals to locate host worker ants. To provide a solid background in support of our research on mechanisms of host location and olfaction in phorid flies, we studied the morphology of the antennal sensilla of both sexes of P. tricuspis using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Antennae of P. tricuspis show strong sexual dimorphism in structure and shape: the female has a feathered arista which is located distally on the flagellum and has three sub-segments that bear small spinules of microtrichia. The first two antennal segments, scape and pedicel, bear no sensillum, but were densely covered by microtrichia. Three major types of sensilla were found on the flagellum (funicle) of both sexes: sensilla trichodea, sensilla basiconica, and sensilla coeloconica. Two of these, s. trichodea and s. basiconica were differentiated into three (short, medium, and long) and two (blunt-tip and sharp-tip) subtypes, respectively, for a total of six morphologically different sensilla subtypes. Ultrastructural studies revealed multiple wall pores on s. trichodea and s. basiconica, possibly suggesting chemoreceptory functions. The third and least abundant sensilla type, s. coeloconica, had no wall pores and may function as thermo-hygroreceptors. With the exception of the long subtype of s. trichodea which was recorded only on the male antennae, no other marked sexual differences were recorded in the number and distribution of antennal sensilla in P. tricuspis. These results are discussed in relation to the host location behavior of P. tricuspis, and could facilitate future studies on the neurobiology of olfaction in decapitating phorid flies.

Scanning electron microscopy studies of antennal sensilla of Pteromalus cerealellae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).

Pteromalus cerealellae (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is an ectoparasitoid of several insect pests of stored products. In order to provide requisite background information to support our ongoing research on its host location mechanisms, we examined the external morphology of the antennal sensilla of this parasitoid using scanning electron microscopy. Antennae of male and female P. cerealellae are geniculate in shape, approximately 1300mum in length, and consist of 15 antennomeres. Eight morphological sensilla types were recorded in both sexes, including four types of the highly abundant and widely distributed sensilla trichodea (types I, II and IV are aporous while type III is multiporous), basiconic capitate peg sensilla, coeloconic sensilla, chaetica sensilla, and the most conspicuous plate-like placoid sensilla. Detailed examination of sensilla morphological features including pore presence and numbers suggest that the multiporous type III sensilla trichodea and the multiporous placoid sensilla may play a role in olfaction, whereas the uniporous chaetica sensilla may function as contact chemoreceptors. The types I and II sensilla trichodea are presumably mechanosensory, while the type IV sensilla trichodea may function as proprioceptors. The basiconic capitate peg sensilla and coeloconic sensilla probably function in thermo-hygro reception. Although the shape, structure, and size of antennae of males and female were basically similar, major differences were recorded between the sexes in the distribution of some sensilla types. The type II sensilla trichodea and the multiporous placoid sensilla are relatively more abundant in females, whereas males have greater number of the multiporous type III sensilla trichodea than females. These results are discussed in relation to the possible roles of the sensilla types in the host location behavior of P. cerealellae.

Seasonal occurrence of key arthropod pests and associated natural enemies in Alabama Satsuma citrus.

Six Alabama Satsuma mandarin orchards (four conventionally sprayed and two unsprayed) were surveyed during 2005 and 2006 to determine the population dynamics of arthropod pests and their natural enemies. Twenty-eight arthropod pest species were encountered; the major foliage pests were citrus whitefly, Dialeurodes citri (Ashmead); purple scale, Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman); Glover scale, L. gloveri (Packard); and citrus red mite, Panonychus citri (McGregor). Two distinct population peaks were recorded for citrus whitefly at most locations. The most important direct sources of citrus whitefly mortality were parasitism by Encarsia lahorensis (Howard) and infection by the pathogenic fungus, Aschersonia aleyrodis Webber. In general, all stages of both scale insects (purple scale and Glover scale) were present in the orchards year-round, indicative of overlapping generations; however, the highest densities were recorded during the early season. Citrus whitefly, purple scale, and Glover scale were more abundant on leaves collected from the interior of the tree canopy than in the exterior canopy. Citrus red mite densities were highest in the spring, with populations declining at the start of the summer, and were more abundant in the exterior canopy than in the interior canopy. The most important natural enemies of citrus red mite were predatory mites belonging to several families, of which Typhlodromalus peregrinus Muma (Phytoseiidae) was the predominant species. Major differences were recorded in the relative abundance of different arthropod pest species in the orchards: citrus whitefly, purple scale, and Glover scale predominated in the unsprayed orchards, whereas citrus red mite infestations were more severe in the sprayed orchards. The results are discussed in relation to the possible effect of orchard management practices on abundance of the major pests.