Conformationally Preorganized High-Affinity Ligands for Copper Biology with Hinged and Rigid Thiophene Backbones.

Copper-selective ligands are essential tools for probing the affinity of cuproproteins or manipulating the cellular copper availability. They also harbor significant potential as antiangiogenic agents in cancer therapy or as therapeutics to combat copper toxicity in Wilson's disease. To achieve the high Cu(I) affinities required for competing effectively with cellular cuproproteins, we recently devised a ligand design based on phosphine-sulfide-stabilized phosphine (PSP) donor motifs. Building on this design strategy, we integrated two PSP donors within preorganized ligand architectures composed of either a hinged bithiophene backbone (bithipPS) or a single rigid thiophene bridge (thipPS). Extensive characterization based on X-ray crystal structures, solution NMR data, spectrophotometric titrations, and electrochemical studies established that bithipPS adapts well to the coordination preferences of Cu(I) to form a discrete air-stable mononuclear Cu(I) complex with a dissociation constant of 4 zM. In contrast, the wider bite angle of thipPS introduces some strain upon Cu(I) coordination to yield an almost 10-fold lower affinity with a Kd of 35 zM. As revealed by ICP-MS and two-photon excitation microscopy studies with the Cu(I)-selective fluorescent probe crisp-17, both ligands are effective at removing cellular copper from live mouse fibroblasts with rapid kinetics. Altogether, the stability and redox properties of PSP-ligand-Cu(I) complexes can be effectively tuned by judicious balancing of their geometrical preorganization and conformational flexibility.

Ratiometric two-photon microscopy reveals attomolar copper buffering in normal and Menkes mutant cells.

Copper is controlled by a sophisticated network of transport and storage proteins within mammalian cells, yet its uptake and efflux occur with rapid kinetics. Present as Cu(I) within the reducing intracellular environment, the nature of this labile copper pool remains elusive. While glutathione is involved in copper homeostasis and has been assumed to buffer intracellular copper, we demonstrate with a ratiometric fluorescent indicator, crisp-17, that cytosolic Cu(I) levels are buffered to the vicinity of 1 aM, where negligible complexation by glutathione is expected. Enabled by our phosphine sulfide-stabilized phosphine (PSP) ligand design strategy, crisp-17 offers a Cu(I) dissociation constant of 8 aM, thus exceeding the binding affinities of previous synthetic Cu(I) probes by four to six orders of magnitude. Two-photon excitation microscopy with crisp-17 revealed rapid, reversible increases in intracellular Cu(I) availability upon addition of the ionophoric complex CuGTSM or the thiol-selective oxidant 2,2'-dithiodipyridine (DTDP). While the latter effect was dramatically enhanced in 3T3 cells grown in the presence of supplemental copper and in cultured Menkes mutant fibroblasts exhibiting impaired copper efflux, basal Cu(I) availability in these cells showed little difference from controls, despite large increases in total copper content. Intracellular copper is thus tightly buffered by endogenous thiol ligands with significantly higher affinity than glutathione. The dual utility of crisp-17 to detect normal intracellular buffered Cu(I) levels as well as to probe the depth of the labile copper pool in conjunction with DTDP provides a promising strategy to characterize perturbations of cellular copper homeostasis.

Preorganized PSP Ligands Yield Monomeric Cu(I) Complexes with Subzeptomolar Cu(I) Dissociation Constants.

Unraveling the function of biological copper (Cu) requires tools that can selectively recognize and manipulate this trace nutrient within the complex chemical environment of biological systems. Increasing evidence suggests that cells maintain an exchangeable pool of Cu(I) that is buffered in the high zeptomolar to low attomolar range. While mixed amine-thioether donors have been commonly employed for the design of Cu(I)-selective ligands and probes, their dissociation constants are limited to the pico- to femtomolar range. To address this challenge, we combined our previously devised phosphine sulfide-stabilized phosphine donor motifs with a rigid 1,2-phenylene or 1,8-naphthylene ligand backbone. The resulting ligands, phenPS and naphPS, bind Cu(I) with a 1:1 complex stoichiometry and offer dissociation constants of 0.6 and 0.8 zM, respectively. Concluding from the crystal structures of the free and Cu(I)-bound ligands, the 1,2-phenylene-bridged ligand phenPS provides a high degree of structural preorganization to accommodate the Cu(I) center without large conformational changes, while the 1,8-naphthylene-bridged ligand revealed significant out-of-plane distortions in both the free and Cu(I)-bound states. Both ligands were accessed by palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions from the corresponding arylhalides under mild conditions, an approach that could be readily expanded toward the design of other ligands and probes.

Glutathione limits aquacopper(I) to sub-femtomolar concentrations through cooperative assembly of a tetranuclear cluster.

The tripeptide glutathione (GSH) is a crucial intracellular reductant and radical scavenger, but it may also coordinate the soft Cu(I) cation and thereby yield pro-oxidant species. The GSH-Cu(I) interaction is thus a key consideration for both redox and copper homeostasis in cells. However, even after nearly four decades of investigation, the nature and stability of the GSH-Cu(I) complexes formed under biologically relevant conditions remain controversial. Here, we revealed the unexpected predominance of a tetranuclear [Cu4(GS)6] cluster that is sufficiently stable to limit the effective free aquacopper(I) concentration to the sub-femtomolar regime. Combined spectrophotometric-potentiometric titrations at biologically realistic GSH/Cu(I) ratios, enabled by our recently developed Cu(I) affinity standards and corroborated by low-temperature phosphorescence studies, established cooperative assembly of [Cu4(GS)6] as the dominant species over a wide pH range, from 5.5 to 7.5. Our robust model for the glutathione-Cu(I) equilibrium system sets a firm upper limit on the thermodynamic availability of intracellular copper that is 3 orders of magnitude lower than previously estimated. Taking into account their ability to catalyze the production of deleterious superoxide, the formation of Cu(I)-glutathione complexes might be avoided under normal physiological conditions. The actual intracellular Cu(I) availability may thus be regulated a further 3 orders of magnitude below the GSH/Cu(I) affinity limit, consistent with the most recent affinity determinations of Cu(I) chaperones.

Stabilization of Aliphatic Phosphines by Auxiliary Phosphine Sulfides Offers Zeptomolar Affinity and Unprecedented Selectivity for Probing Biological CuI.

Full elucidation of the functions and homeostatic pathways of biological copper requires tools that can selectively recognize and manipulate this trace nutrient within living cells and tissues, where it exists primarily as CuI . Buffered at attomolar concentrations, intracellular CuI is, however, not readily accessible to commonly employed amine and thioether-based chelators. Herein, we reveal a chelator design strategy in which phosphine sulfides aid in CuI coordination while simultaneously stabilizing aliphatic phosphine donors, producing a charge-neutral ligand with low-zeptomolar dissociation constant and 1017 -fold selectivity for CuI over ZnII , FeII , and MnII . As illustrated by reversing ATP7A trafficking in cells and blocking long-term potentiation of neurons in mouse hippocampal brain tissue, the ligand is capable of intercepting copper-dependent processes. The phosphine sulfide-stabilized phosphine (PSP) design approach, which confers resistance towards protonation, dioxygen, and disulfides, could be readily expanded towards ligands and probes with tailored properties for exploring CuI in a broad range of biological systems.

Optically Modulated Photoswitchable Fluorescent Proteins Yield Improved Biological Imaging Sensitivity.

Photoswitchable fluorescent proteins (PS-FPs) open grand new opportunities in biological imaging. Through optical manipulation of FP emission, we demonstrate that dual-laser modulated synchronously amplified fluorescence image recovery (DM-SAFIRe) improves signal contrast in high background through unambiguous demodulation and is linear in relative fluorophore abundance at different points in the cell. The unique bright-to-dark state interconversion rates of each PS-FP not only enables discrimination of different, yet spectrally indistinguishable FPs, but also allows signal rejection of diffusing relative to bound forms of the same PS-FP, rsFastLime. Adding to the sensitivity gains realized from rejecting non-modulatable background, the selective signal recovery of immobilized vs diffusing intracellular rsFastLime suggests that DM-SAFIRe can detect weak protein-protein interactions that are normally obscured by large fractions of unbound FPs.

Fluorogenic Strain-Promoted Alkyne-Diazo Cycloadditions.

Fluorogenic reactions, in which non- or weakly fluorescent reagents produce highly fluorescent products, are attractive for detecting a broad range of compounds in the fields of bioconjugation and material sciences. Herein, we report that a dibenzocyclooctyne derivative modified with a cyclopropenone moiety (Fl-DIBO) can undergo fast strain-promoted cycloaddition reactions under catalyst-free conditions with azides, nitrones, nitrile oxides, as well as mono- and disubstituted diazo-derivatives. Although the reaction with nitrile oxides, nitrones, and disubstituted diazo compounds gave cycloadducts with low quantum yield, monosubstituted diazo reagents produced 1H-pyrazole derivatives that exhibited an approximately 160-fold fluorescence enhancement over Fl-DIBO combined with a greater than 10,000-fold increase in brightness. Concluding from quantum chemical calculations, fluorescence quenching of 3H-pyrazoles, which are formed by reaction with disubstituted diazo-derivatives, is likely due to the presence of energetically low-lying (n,π*) states. The fluorogenic probe Fl-DIBO was successfully employed for the labeling of diazo-tagged proteins without detectable background signal. Diazo-derivatives are emerging as attractive reporters for the labeling of biomolecules, and the studies presented herein demonstrate that Fl-DIBO can be employed for visualizing such biomolecules without the need for probe washout.

Developmental regulation of zinc homeostasis in differentiating oligodendrocytes.

Oligodendrocytes develop through sequential stages and understanding pathways regulating their differentiation remains an important area of investigation. Zinc is required for the function of enzymes, proteins and transcription factors, including those important in myelination and mitosis. Our previous studies using the ratiometric zinc sensor chromis-1 demonstrated a reduction in intracellular free zinc concentrations in mature MBP+ oligodendrocytes compared with earlier stages (Bourassa et al., 2018). We performed a more detailed developmental study to better understand the temporal course of zinc homeostasis across the oligodendrocyte lineage. Using chromis-1, we found a transient increase in free zinc after O4+,O1- pre-oligodendrocytes were switched from proliferation medium into terminal differentiation medium. To gather other evidence for dynamic regulation of free zinc during oligodendrocyte development, qPCR was used to evaluate mRNA expression of major zinc storage proteins metallothioneins (MTs) and metal regulatory transcription factor 1 (MTF1), which controls expression of MTs. MT1, MT2 and MTF1 mRNAs were increased several fold in mature oligodendrocytes compared to oligodendrocytes in proliferation medium. To assess the depth of the zinc buffer, we assayed zinc release from intracellular stores using the oxidizing thiol reagent 2,2'-dithiodipyridine (DTDP). Exposure to DTDP resulted in âˆ¼ 100% increase in free zinc in pre-oligodendrocytes but, paradoxically more modest âˆ¼ 60% increase in mature oligodendrocytes despite increased expression of MTs. These results suggest that zinc homeostasis is regulated during oligodendrocyte development, that oligodendrocytes are a useful model for studying zinc homeostasis in the central nervous system, and that regulation of zinc homeostasis may be important in oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Robust affinity standards for Cu(I) biochemistry.

The measurement of reliable Cu(I) protein binding affinities requires competing reference ligands with similar binding strengths; however, the literature on such reference ligands is not only sparse but often conflicting. To address this deficiency, we have created and characterized a series of water-soluble monovalent copper ligands, MCL-1, MCL-2, and MCL-3, that form well-defined, air-stable, and colorless complexes with Cu(I) in aqueous solution. X-ray structural data, electrochemical measurements, and an extensive network of equilibrium titrations showed that all three ligands form discrete Cu(I) complexes with 1:1 stoichiometry and are capable of buffering Cu(I) concentrations between 10(-10) and 10(-17) M. As most Cu(I) protein affinities have been obtained from competition experiments with bathocuproine disulfonate or 2,2'-bicinchoninic acid, we further calibrated their Cu(I) stability constants against the MCL series. To demonstrate the application of these reagents, we determined the Cu(I) binding affinity of CusF (log K = 14.3 ± 0.1), a periplasmic metalloprotein required for the detoxification of elevated copper levels in Escherichia coli . Altogether, this interconnected set of affinity standards establishes a reliable foundation that will facilitate the precise determination of Cu(I) binding affinities of proteins and small-molecule ligands.

Developmental regulation of zinc homeostasis in differentiating oligodendrocytes.

Oligodendrocytes develop through well characterized stages and understanding pathways regulating their differentiation remains an active area of investigation. Zinc is required for the function of many enzymes, proteins and transcription factors, including those important in myelination and mitosis. Our previous studies using the ratiometric zinc sensor chromis-1 demonstrated a reduction in intracellular free zinc concentrations in mature oligodendrocytes compared with earlier stages (Bourassa et al., 2018). We performed a more detailed developmental study to better understand the temporal course of zinc homeostasis across the oligodendrocyte lineage. Using chromis-1, we found a transient increase in free zinc after developing oligodendrocytes were switched into differentiation medium. To gather other evidence for dynamic regulation of free zinc during oligodendrocyte development, qPCR was used to evaluate mRNA expression of the major zinc storage proteins metallothioneins (MTs), and metal regulatory transcription factor 1 (MTF-1) which controls expression of MTs. MT-1, MT-2 and MTF1 mRNAs were all increased several fold in mature oligodendrocytes compared to developing oligodendrocytes. To assess the depth of the zinc buffer, we assayed zinc release from intracellular stores using the oxidizing thiol reagent 2,2'-dithiodipyridine (DTDP). Exposure to DTDP resulted in a ∼100% increase in free zinc in developing oligodendrocytes but, paradoxically more modest ∼60% increase in mature oligodendrocytes despite the increased expression of MTs. These results suggest that zinc homeostasis is regulated during oligodendrocyte development, that oligodendrocytes are a useful model for studying zinc homeostasis in the central nervous system, and that regulation of zinc homeostasis may be important in oligodendrocyte differentiation.

A fluorogenic probe for the catalyst-free detection of azide-tagged molecules.

Fluorogenic reactions in which non- or weakly fluorescent reagents produce highly fluorescent products can be exploited to detect a broad range of compounds including biomolecules and materials. We describe a modified dibenzocyclooctyne that under catalyst-free conditions undergoes fast strain-promoted cycloadditions with azides to yield strongly fluorescent triazoles. The cycloaddition products are more than 1000-fold brighter compared to the starting cyclooctyne, exhibit large Stokes shift, and can be excited above 350 nm, which is required for many applications. Quantum mechanical calculations indicate that the fluorescence increase upon triazole formation is due to large differences in oscillator strengths of the S(0) ↔ S(1) transitions in the planar C(2v)-symmetric starting material compared to the symmetry-broken and nonplanar cycloaddition products. The new fluorogenic probe was successfully employed for labeling of proteins modified by an azide moiety.

9-Aryl-9-xanthenols: a convenient platform for the design of fluorimetric and colorimetric pH indicators.

In aqueous and alcohol solutions, colorless and non-fluorescent derivatives of 9-aryl-9H-xanthen-9-ol equilibrate with brightly colored and fluorescent 9-arylxanthylium cations, thus offering a convenient platform for the design of dual-mode indicators for emission and absorption-based pH measurements. The position of the prototropic equilibrium depends only on the hydronium ion concentration and is not affected by general acids or other ions. Furthermore, the equilibrium equivalence point can be readily adjusted by introducing substituents in the xanthenol core. As dehydroxylation of 3,6-dialkoxy-9-(o-tolyl)-9-xanthenol occurs at pH = 6.5, indicators of this type are well suited for biological applications as illustrated by in vitro cell culture studies with NIH 3T3 cells.

High-Affinity Cu(I)-Chelator with Potential Anti-Tumorigenic Action-A Proof-of-Principle Experimental Study of Human H460 Tumors in the CAM Assay.

Human lung cancer ranks among the most frequently treated cancers worldwide. As copper appears critical to angiogenesis and tumor growth, selective removal of copper represents a promising strategy to restrict tumor growth. To this end, we explored the activity of the novel high-affinity membrane-permeant Cu(I) chelator PSP-2 featuring a low-zeptomolar dissociation constant. Using H460 human lung cancer cells, we generated small tumors on the chorioallantoic membrane of the chicken embryo (CAM assay) and studied the effects of topical PSP-2 application on their weight and vessel density after one week. We observed a significant angiosuppression along with a marked decrease in tumor weight under PSP-2 application compared to controls. Moreover, PSP-2 exposure resulted in lower ki67+ cell numbers at a low dose but increased cell count under a high dose. Moreover, HIF-1α+ cells were significantly reduced with low-dose PSP-2 exposure compared to high-dose and control. The total copper content was considerably lower in PSP-2 treated tumors, although statistically not significant. Altogether, PSP-2 shows promising potential as an anti-cancer drug. Nevertheless, further animal experiments and application to different tumor types are mandatory to support these initial findings, paving the way toward clinical trials.

Designed to dissolve: suppression of colloidal aggregation of Cu(I)-selective fluorescent probes in aqueous buffer and in-gel detection of a metallochaperone.

Due to the lipophilicity of the metal-ion receptor, previously reported Cu(I)-selective fluorescent probes form colloidal aggregates, as revealed by dynamic light scattering. To address this problem, we have developed a hydrophilic triarylpyrazoline-based fluorescent probe, CTAP-2, that dissolves directly in water and shows a rapid, reversible, and highly selective 65-fold fluorescence turn-on response to Cu(I) in aqueous solution. CTAP-2 proved to be sufficiently sensitive for direct in-gel detection of Cu(I) bound to the metallochaperone Atox1, demonstrating the potential for cation-selective fluorescent probes to serve as tools in metalloproteomics for identifying proteins with readily accessible metal-binding sites.

Optically Modulated and Optically Activated Delayed Fluorescent Proteins through Dark State Engineering.

Modulating fluorescent protein emission holds great potential for increasing readout sensitivity for applications in biological imaging and detection. Here, we identify and engineer optically modulated yellow fluorescent proteins (EYFP, originally 10C, but renamed EYFP later, and mVenus) to yield new emitters with distinct modulation profiles and unique, optically gated, delayed fluorescence. The parent YFPs are individually modulatable through secondary illumination, depopulating a long-lived dark state to dynamically increase fluorescence. A single point mutation introduced near the chromophore in each of these YFPs provides access to a second, even longer-lived modulatable dark state, while a different double mutant renders EYFP unmodulatable. The naturally occurring dark state in the parent YFPs yields strong fluorescence modulation upon long-wavelength-induced dark state depopulation, allowing selective detection at the frequency at which the long wavelength secondary laser is intensity modulated. Distinct from photoswitches, however, this near IR secondary coexcitation repumps the emissive S1 level from the long-lived triplet state, resulting in optically activated delayed fluorescence (OADF). This OADF results from secondary laser-induced, reverse intersystem crossing (RISC), producing additional nanosecond-lived, visible fluorescence that is delayed by many microseconds after the primary excitation has turned off. Mutation of the parent chromophore environment opens an additional modulation pathway that avoids the OADF-producing triplet state, resulting in a second, much longer-lived, modulatable dark state. These Optically Modulated and Optically Activated Delayed Fluorescent Proteins (OMFPs and OADFPs) are thus excellent for background- and reference-free, high sensitivity cellular imaging, but time-gated OADF offers a second modality for true background-free detection. Our combined structural and spectroscopic data not only gives additional mechanistic details for designing optically modulated fluorescent proteins but also provides the opportunity to distinguish similarly emitting OMFPs through OADF and through their unique modulation spectra.

Kinetically controlled photoinduced electron transfer switching in Cu(I)-responsive fluorescent probes.

Copper(I)-responsive fluorescent probes based on photoinduced electron transfer (PET) switching consistently display incomplete recovery of emission upon Cu(I) binding compared to the corresponding isolated fluorophores, raising the question of whether Cu(I) might engage in adverse quenching pathways. To address this question, we performed detailed photophysical studies on a series of Cu(I)-responsive fluorescent probes that are based on a 16-membered thiazacrown receptor ([16]aneNS(3)) tethered to 1,3,5-triarylpyrazoline-fluorophores. The fluorescence enhancement upon Cu(I) binding, which is mainly governed by changes in the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) driving force between the ligand and fluorophore, was systematically optimized by increasing the electron withdrawing character of the 1-aryl-ring, yielding a maximum 29-fold fluorescence enhancement upon saturation with Cu(I) in methanol and a greater than 500-fold enhancement upon protonation with trifluoroacetic acid. Time-resolved fluorescence decay data for the Cu(I)-saturated probe indicated the presence of three distinct emissive species in methanol. Contrary to the notion that Cu(I) might engage in reductive electron transfer quenching, femtosecond time-resolved pump-probe experiments provided no evidence for formation of a transient Cu(II) species upon photoexcitation. Variable temperature (1)H NMR experiments revealed a dynamic equilibrium between the tetradentate NS(3)-coordinated Cu(I) complex and a ternary complex involving coordination of a solvent molecule, an observation that was further supported by quantum chemical calculations. The combined photophysical, electrochemical, and solution chemistry experiments demonstrate that electron transfer from Cu(I) does not compete with radiative deactivation of the excited fluorophore, and, hence, that the Cu(I)-induced fluorescence switching is kinetically controlled.

Copper redistribution in Atox1-deficient mouse fibroblast cells.

Quantitative synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (SXRF) imaging of adherent mouse fibroblast cells deficient in antioxidant-1 (Atox1), a metallochaperone protein responsible for delivering Cu to cuproenzymes in the trans-Golgi network, revealed striking differences in the subcellular Cu distribution compared with wild-type cells. Whereas the latter showed a pronounced perinuclear localization of Cu, the Atox1-deficient cells displayed a mostly unstructured and diffuse distribution throughout the entire cell body. Comparison of the SXRF elemental maps for Zn and Fe of the same samples showed no marked differences between the two cell lines. The data underscore the importance of Atox1, not only as a metallochaperone for delivering Cu to cuproenzymes, but also as a key player in maintaining the proper distribution and organization of Cu at the cellular level.

Electronically tuned 1,3,5-triarylpyrazolines as Cu(I)-selective fluorescent probes.

We have prepared and characterized a Cu(i)-responsive fluorescent probe, constructed using a large tetradentate, 16-membered thiazacrown ligand ([16]aneNS(3)) and 1,3,5-triaryl-substituted pyrazoline fluorophores. The fluorescence contrast ratio upon analyte binding, which is mainly governed by changes of the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) driving force between the ligand and fluorophore, was systematically optimized by increasing the electron withdrawing character of the 1-aryl-ring, yielding a maximum 50-fold fluorescence enhancement upon saturation with Cu(i) in methanol and a greater than 300-fold enhancement upon protonation with trifluoroacetic acid. The observed fluorescence increase was selective towards Cu(i) over a broad range of mono- and divalent transition metal cations. Previously established Hammett LFERs proved to be a valuable tool to predict two of the PET key parameters, the acceptor potential (E(A/A(-)) and the excited state energy DeltaE(00), and thus to identify a set of pyrazolines that would best match the thermodynamic requirements imposed by the donor potential E(D(+)/D) of the thiazacrown receptor. The described approach should be applicable for rationally designing high-contrast pyrazoline-based PET probes selective towards other metal cations.

Transmembrane Cu(I) P-type ATPase pumps are electrogenic uniporters.

Cu(i) P-type ATPases are transmembrane primary active ion pumps that catalyze the extrusion of copper ions across cellular membranes. Their activity is critical in controlling copper levels in all kingdoms of life. Biochemical and structural characterization established the structural framework by which Cu-pumps perform their function. However, the details of the overall mechanism of transport (uniporter vs. cotransporter) and electrogenicity still remain elusive. In this work, we developed a platform to reconstitute the model Cu(i)-pump from E. coli (EcCopA) in artificial lipid bilayer small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) to quantitatively characterize the metal substrate, putative counter-ions and charge translocation. By encapsulating in the liposome lumen fluorescence detector probes (CTAP-3, pyranine and oxonol VI) responsive to diverse stimuli (Cu(i), pH and membrane potential), we correlated substrate, secondary-ion translocation and charge movement events in EcCopA proteoliposomes. This platform centered on multiple fluorescence reporters allowed study of the mechanism and translocation kinetic parameters in real-time for wild-type EcCopA and inactive mutants. The maximal initial Cu(i) transport rate of 165 nmol Cu(i) mg-1 min-1 and KM, Cu(I) = 0.15 ± 0.07 µM was determined with this analysis. We reveal that Cu(i) pumps are primary-active uniporters and electrogenic. The Cu(i) translocation cycle does not require proton counter-transport resulting in electrogenic generation of transmembrane potential upon translocation of one Cu(i) per ATP hydrolysis cycle. Thus, mechanistic differences between Cu(i) pumps and other better characterized P-type ATPases are discussed. The platform opens the venue to study translocation events and mechanisms of transport in other transition metal P-type ATPase pumps.

Copper bioavailability is a KRAS-specific vulnerability in colorectal cancer.

Despite its importance in human cancers, including colorectal cancers (CRC), oncogenic KRAS has been extremely challenging to target therapeutically. To identify potential vulnerabilities in KRAS-mutated CRC, we characterize the impact of oncogenic KRAS on the cell surface of intestinal epithelial cells. Here we show that oncogenic KRAS alters the expression of a myriad of cell-surface proteins implicated in diverse biological functions, and identify many potential surface-accessible therapeutic targets. Cell surface-based loss-of-function screens reveal that ATP7A, a copper-exporter upregulated by mutant KRAS, is essential for neoplastic growth. ATP7A is upregulated at the surface of KRAS-mutated CRC, and protects cells from excess copper-ion toxicity. We find that KRAS-mutated cells acquire copper via a non-canonical mechanism involving macropinocytosis, which appears to be required to support their growth. Together, these results indicate that copper bioavailability is a KRAS-selective vulnerability that could be exploited for the treatment of KRAS-mutated neoplasms.