Compression Socks Reduce Running-Induced Intestinal Damage.

ABSTRACT: Zadow, EK, Edwards, KH, Kitic, CM, Fell, JW, Adams, MJ, Singh, I, Kundur, A, Johnstone, ANB, Crilly, J, Bulmer, AC, Halson, SL, and, and Wu, SSX. Compression socks reduce running-induced intestinal damage. J Strength Cond Res 36(9): 2461-2464, 2022-Exercise is associated with a reduction in splanchnic blood flow that leads to the disruption of intestinal epithelium integrity, contributing to exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome. Strategies that promote intestinal blood flow during exercise may reduce intestinal damage, which may be advantageous for subsequent recovery and performance. This study aimed to explore if exercise-associated intestinal damage was influenced by wearing compression garments, which may improve central blood flow. Subjects were randomly allocated to wear compression socks ( n = 23) or no compression socks (control, n = 23) during a marathon race. Blood samples were collected 24 hours before and immediately after marathon and analyzed for intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP) concentration as a marker of intestinal damage. The magnitude of increase in postmarathon plasma I-FABP concentration was significantly greater in control group (107%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 72-428%) when compared with runners wearing compression socks (38%; 95% CI, 20-120%; p = 0.046; d = 0.59). Wearing compression socks during a marathon run reduced exercise-associated intestinal damage. Compression socks may prove an effective strategy to minimize the intestinal damage component of exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome.

Deep vein thrombosis in a well-trained masters cyclist, is popliteal vein entrapment syndrome to blame?

Whilst athletes are the epitome of health, venous thromboembolisms (VTE) including deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism have been demonstrated to occur in well-trained athletes. VTE is frequently misdiagnosed and poorly treated within this population, often resulting in career or life-threatening ramifications. Furthermore, VTE risk rises with increasing age (> 40 years), potentially affecting masters athletes. A 44-year-old well-trained male cyclist volunteered to participate in a research project investigating the influence of exercise on haemostasis in well-trained athletes. The cyclist presented with elevated D-Dimer levels both pre- (2251 ng/mL) and post-exercise (2653 ng/mL). The cyclist reported constant mild-pain in the left mid-calf region, with a cold tingling sensation in their left foot. Diagnosis of DVT was confirmed via a DVT squeeze test and Doppler ultrasound, with the clot located in the left popliteal vein. During the research project, the cyclist was exposed to numerous thrombogenic risk factors including travel, dehydration, prolonged sitting and exercise. The DVT in the popliteal vein may have resulted from repetitive movements associated with cycling. Additionally, hypertrophy of the gastrocnemius muscle may have impinged the vein. When diagnosing DVT within a cycling population, PVES should not be overlooked as a contributing factor.

The effect of an ultra-endurance running race on heart rate variability.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an ultra-marathon on heart rate variability (HRV) and psychometric indices in endurance runners. In addition, we aimed to determine the magnitude of change and subsequent recovery for 7 days following the race. METHODS: Recreationally trained runners (n = 13 (8M); age = 36.6 ± 7.6 years; height = 174 ± 9 cm; weight = 70.5 ± 9.3 kg) completed measures of HRV upon waking in the morning for 1 week prior to and 1 week following a 64-km running race. Profile of mood states, wellbeing, and muscular soreness were also measured throughout the study period to further contextualise recovery. RESULTS: An increase in heart rate accompanied by decreased LnSDNN, LnRMSSD, LnLF, LnHF, and LnLF/HF from baseline were observed 1 day post-race (p < 0.05). Indices of HRV had returned to baseline on day 2 of recovery. Perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness increased post-race (immediately following and on day 1 of recovery) (p < 0.05) and took until day 5 of recovery to return to baseline. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that cardiac autonomic control is significantly altered in response to a 64 km ultra-marathon. Specifically, parasympathetic activity is suppressed. The change in autonomic control was relatively short-lived, and parasympathetic-related indices had returned to baseline 2 days after the event. Subjective measures of fatigue and wellbeing suggest that athletes were not completely recovered until day 5 post-event, with muscular soreness remaining prominent during this period. A combination of physiological and psychological parameters is important to contextualise recovery in ultra-endurance runners.

Combined Carbohydrate and Protein Ingestion During Australian Rules Football Matches and Training Sessions Does Not Reduce Fatigue or Accelerate Recovery Throughout a Weeklong Junior Tournament.

Lee, NA, Fell, JW, Pitchford, NW, Hall, AH, Leveritt, MD, and Kitic, CM. Combined carbohydrate and protein ingestion during Australian rules football matches and training sessions does not reduce fatigue or accelerate recovery throughout a weeklong junior tournament. J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 344-355, 2018-Australian rules football (ARF) is a physically demanding sport that can induce high levels of fatigue. Fatigue may be intensified during periods where multiple matches are played with limited recovery time. Combined carbohydrate and protein (CHO + PRO) intake during physical activity may provide performance and recovery benefits. The aim of this study was to investigate whether CHO + PRO ingestion during ARF matches and training sessions throughout a tournament would enhance performance or recovery in comparison with CHO-only ingestion. Australian rules football players (n = 21) competing in a 7-day national tournament participated in this randomized and double-blinded study. Beverages containing either CHO (n = 10) or CHO + PRO (n = 11) were provided during matches (day 1, day 4, and day 7) and training sessions (day 2 and day 3). Countermovement jumps (CMJs), ratings of muscle soreness, and autonomic function were assessed throughout the tournament. Gastrointestinal tract (GI) discomfort was measured after matches. Countermovement jump peak velocity increased in the CHO + PRO group (p = 0.01) but not in the CHO group. There were no differences in the other CMJ variables. In both groups, muscle soreness increased from days 0 and 1 to day 2 (p ≤ 0.05) but did not remain elevated. R-R intervals (time elapsed between successive peaks in QRS complexes) increased in both groups from day 1 to day 7 (mean difference = 59.85 ms, p < 0.01). Postmatch GI discomfort was not different (p > 0.05) between groups. When daily dietary protein is adequate (>1.8 g·kg·d), the ingestion of CHO + PRO during matches and training sessions throughout a tournament does not reduce muscle soreness nor have clear benefits for neuromuscular recovery or modulate autonomic function in junior ARF athletes, compared with that of CHO alone.

Commercial Hype Versus Reality: Our Current Scientific Understanding of Gluten and Athletic Performance.

Recent explosion in the prevalence of gluten-free athletes, exacerbated by unsubstantiated commercial health claims, has led to some professional athletes touting gluten-free diet as the secret to their success. Forty-one percent of athletes report adhering to a gluten-free diet (GFD), which is four-fold higher than the population-based clinical requirements. Many nonceliac athletes believe that gluten avoidance improves gastrointestinal well-being, reduces inflammation, and provides an ergogenic edge, despite the fact that limited data yet exist to support any of these benefits. There are several plausible associations between endurance-based exercise and gastrointestinal permeability whereby a GFD may be beneficial. However, the implications of confounding factors, including the risks of unnecessary dietary restriction, financial burden, food availability, psychosocial implications, alterations in short-chain carbohydrates (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols), and other wheat constituents emphasize the need for further evaluation.

The Reliability of Strength Tests Performed In Elevated Shoulder Positions Using a Handheld Dynamometer.

CONTEXT: The reliable measurement of shoulder strength is important when assessing athletes involved in overhead activities. Swimmers' shoulders are subject to repetitive humeral elevation and consequently have a high risk of developing movement-control issues and pain. Shoulder-strength tests performed in positions of elevation assist with the detection of strength deficits that may affect injury and performance. The reliability of isometric strength tests performed in positions of humeral elevation without manual stabilization, which is a typical clinical scenario, has not been established. OBJECTIVE: To establish the relative and absolute intrarater reliability of shoulder-strength tests functional to swimming in 3 body positions commonly used in the clinical setting. DESIGN: Repeated-measures reliability study. SETTING: Research laboratory. SUBJECTS: 15 university students and staff (mean ± SD age 24 ± 8.2 y). INTERVENTION: Isometric shoulder-strength tests were performed in positions of humeral elevation (flexion and extension in 140° abduction in the scapular plane, internal and external rotation in 90° abduction) on subjects without shoulder pain in supine, prone, and sitting. Subjects were tested by 1 examiner with a handheld dynamometer and retested after 48 h. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Relative reliability (ICC3,1) values with 95% CI. Absolute reliability was reported by minimal detectable change (MDC). RESULTS: Good to excellent intrarater reliability was found for all shoulder-strength tests (ICC .87-.99). Intrarater reliability was not affected by body position. MDC% was <16% for every test and ≤11% for tests performed in supine. CONCLUSIONS: Shoulder flexion, extension, and internal- and external-rotation strength tests performed in humeral elevation demonstrated excellent to good intrarater reliability regardless of body position. A strength change of more than 15% in any position can be considered meaningful.

Exploring the popularity, experiences, and beliefs surrounding gluten-free diets in nonceliac athletes.

Adherence to a gluten-free diet (GFD) for nonceliac athletes (NCA) has become increasingly popular despite a paucity of supportive medical or ergogenic evidence. This study aimed to quantify the demographics of NCA and determine associated experiences, perceptions, and sources of information related to GFD. Athletes (n = 910, female = 528, no gender selected = 5) completed a 17-question online survey. Forty-one percent of NCA respondents, including 18-world and/or Olympic medalists, follow a GFD 50-100% of the time (GFD > 50): only 13% for treatment of reported medical conditions with 57% self-diagnosing their gluten sensitivity. The GFD > 50 group characteristics included predominantly endurance sport athletes (70.0%) at the recreationally competitive level (32.3%), between 31 and 40 years of age (29.1%). Those who follow a GFD > 50 reported experiencing, abdominal/gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms alone (16.7%) or in conjunction with two (30.7%) or three (35.7%) additional symptoms (e.g., fatigue) believed to be triggered by gluten. Eighty-four percent of GFD > 50 indicated symptom improvement with gluten-removal. Symptom-based and non-symptom-based self-diagnosed gluten-sensitivity (56.7%) was the primary reason for adopting a GFD. Leading sources of GFD information were online (28.7%), trainer/coach (26.2%) and other athletes (17.4%). Although 5-10% of the general population is estimated to benefit clinically from a GFD a higher prevalence of GFD adherence was found in NCA (41.2%). Prescription of a GFD among many athletes does not result from evidence-based practice suggesting that adoption of a GFD in the majority of cases was not based on medical rationale and may be driven by perception that gluten removal provides health benefits and an ergogenic edge in NCA.

The effect of a caffeinated mouth-rinse on endurance cycling time-trial performance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate if acute caffeine exposure via mouth-rinse improved endurance cycling time-trial performance in well-trained cyclists. It was hypothesized that caffeine exposure at the mouth would enhance endurance cycling time-trial performance. Ten well-trained male cyclists (mean ± SD: 32.9 ± 7.5 years, 74.7 ± 5.3 kg, 176.8 ± 5.1cm, VO2peak = 59.8 ± 3.5 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed two experimental time-trials following 24 hr of dietary and exercise standardization. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design was employed whereby cyclists completed a time-trial in the fastest time possible, which was equivalent work to cycling at 75% of peak aerobic power output for 60 min. Cyclists were administered 25 ml mouth-rinses for 10 s containing either placebo or 35 mg of anhydrous caffeine eight times throughout the time-trial. Perceptual and physiological variables were recorded throughout. No significant improvement in time-trial performance was observed with caffeine (3918 ± 243 s) compared with placebo mouth-rinse (3940 ± 227 s). No elevation in plasma caffeine was detected due to the mouth-rinse conditions. Caffeine mouth-rinse had no significant effect on rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, rate of oxygen consumption or blood lactate concentration. Eight exposures of a 35 mg dose of caffeine at the buccal cavity for 10s does not significantly enhance endurance cycling time-trial performance, nor does it elevate plasma caffeine concentration.

The effects of chronic sodium bicarbonate ingestion and interval training in highly trained rowers.

Recent research has reported performance improvements after chronic NaHCO3 ingestion in conjunction with high-intensity interval training (HIT) in moderately trained athletes. The purpose of the current study was to determine the effects of altering plasma H+ concentration during HIT through NaHCO3 ingestion over 4 wk (2 HIT sessions/wk) in 12 Australian representative rowers (M ± SD; age 22 ± 3 yr, mass 76.4 ± 4.2 kg, VO(2peak) 65.50 ± 2.74 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)). Baseline testing included a 2,000-m time trial and an incremental exercise test. After baseline testing, rowers were allocated to either a chronic NaHCO3 (ALK) or placebo (PLA) group. Starting 90 min before each HIT session, subjects ingested a 0.3-g/kg body mass dose of NaHCO3 or a placebo substance. Fingertip blood samples were taken throughout the study to analyze bicarbonate and pH levels. The ALK group did not produce any additional improvements in 2,000-m rowing performance time compared with PLA (p > .05). Magnitude-based inferential analysis indicated an unclear or trivial effect on 2,000-m power, 2,000-m time, peak power output, and power at 4 mmol/L lactate threshold in the ALK group compared with the PLA group. Although there was no difference between groups, during the study there was a significant mean (± SD) 2,000-m power improvement in both the ALK and PLA groups of 17.8 ± 14.5 and 15.2 ± 18.3 W, respectively. In conclusion, despite overall improvements in rowing performance after 4 wk of HIT, the addition of chronic NaHCO3 supplementation during the training period did not significantly enhance performance further.

The effect of beta-alanine supplementation on isokinetic force and cycling performance in highly trained cyclists.

Beta-alanine may benefit short-duration, high-intensity exercise performance. The aim of this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study was to examine the effects of beta-alanine supplementation on aspects of muscular performance in highly trained cyclists. Sixteen highly trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 24 ± 7 yr; mass = 70 ± 7 kg; VO2max = 67 ± 4 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)) supplemented with either beta-alanine (n = 8, 65 mg · kg - 1BM) or a placebo (n = 8; dextrose monohydrate) over 4 weeks. Pre- and postsupplementation cyclists performed a 4-minute maximal cycling test to measure average power and 30 reciprocal maximal isokinetic knee contractions at a fixed angular velocity of 180° · sec(-1) to measure average power/repetition, total work done (TWD), and fatigue index (%). Blood pH, lactate (La-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) concentrations were measured pre- and postisokinetic testing at baseline and following the supplementation period. Beta-alanine supplementation was 44% likely to increase average power output during the 4-minute cycling time trial when compared with the placebo, although this was not statistically significant (p = .25). Isokinetic average power/repetition was significantly increased post beta-alanine supplementation compared with placebo (beta-alanine: 6.8 ± 9.9 W, placebo: -4.3 ± 9.5 W, p = .04, 85% likely benefit), while fatigue index was significantly reduced (p = .03, 95% likely benefit). TWD was 89% likely to be improved following beta-alanine supplementation; however, this was not statistically significant (p = .09). There were no significant differences in blood pH, lactate, and HCO3- between groups (p > .05). Four weeks of beta-alanine supplementation resulted in worthwhile changes in time-trial performance and short-duration muscular force production in highly trained cyclists.

Circulating adiponectin concentration and body composition are altered in response to high-intensity interval training.

Adiponectin influences metabolic adaptations that would prove beneficial to endurance athletes, and yet to date there is little known about the response of adiponectin concentrations to exercise, and, in particular, the response of this hormone to training in an athlete population. This study aimed to determine the response of plasma adiponectin concentrations to acute exercise after 2 different training programs and to determine the influence of the training on body composition. Seven state-level representative rowers (age: 19 ± 1.2 years [mean ± SD], height: 1.77 ± 0.10 m, body mass: 74.0 ± 10.7 kg, VO2peak 62.1 ± 7.0 ml·kg·min) participated in the double-blind, randomized crossover investigation. Rowers performed an incremental graded exercise test before and after completing 4 weeks of high-intensity interval ergometer training and 4 weeks of traditional ergometer rowing training. Rowers' body composition was assessed at baseline and after each training program. Significant increases in plasma adiponectin concentration occurred in response to maximal exercise after completion of the high-intensity interval training (p = 0.016) but not after traditional ergometer rowing training (p = 0.69). The high-intensity interval training also resulted in significant increases in mean 4-minute power output (p = 0.002) and VO2peak (p = 0.05), and a decrease in body fat percentage (p = 0.022). Mean 4-minute power output, VO2peak, and body fat percentage were not significantly different after 4 weeks of traditional ergometer rowing training (p > 0.05). Four weeks of high-intensity interval training is associated with an increase in adiponectin concentration in response to maximal exercise and a reduction in body fat percentage. The potential for changes in adiponectin concentration to reflect positive training adaptations and athlete performance level should be further explored.

A randomized controlled study investigating static and dynamic balance in older adults after training with Pilates.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate effects of a Pilates intervention on balance and function in community-dwelling older (aged >60y) adults. DESIGN: Randomized crossover study design lasting 16 weeks. SETTING: University exercise clinic. PARTICIPANTS: Ambulatory older community-dwelling adults (N=32) were recruited, and 27 (mean ± SD age, 67.3±6.5y) completed the program. INTERVENTION: Participants were allocated to either 5 weeks of a group Pilates training intervention or 5 weeks of usual activity (control). After a 6-week washout period, participants performed the alternate intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Static and dynamic balance measures (mediolateral sway range, Four Square Step Test, Timed Up and Go Test) and leg strength were recorded at 4 times before and after each intervention (baseline [t1], interim time immediately after the first group intervention [t2], after 5-week washout [before the second intervention period] [t3], and at study conclusion after the second group intervention [t4]). RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the Pilates and control groups for any measured variables (P>.05) despite static and dynamic balance significantly improving during the study and from pre- to post-Pilates (P<.05) without significant changes occurring during the control phase. Improvements that occurred during Pilates between t1 and t2 did not return to baseline after the washout period (t3). There were no changes in leg strength. Mediolateral sway range standing on a foam cushion with eyes closed improved -1.64cm (95% confidence interval, -2.47 to -0.82) and had the largest effect size post-Pilates (d=.72). CONCLUSIONS: Although there were no significant between-group differences, participation in the Pilates component of the study led to improved static and dynamic balance. The absence of differences between conditions may be a result of small sample size or the crossover study design because Pilates may produce neuromuscular adaptations of unknown resilience.

The effects of serial and acute NaHCO3 loading in well-trained cyclists.

Many studies have reported substantial performance gains in well-trained athletes after the acute ingestion of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). However, acute NaHCO3 ingestion is not always practical. The aim of this study was to compare acute NaHCO3 loading with serial NaHCO3 loading (split doses over 3 days) in well-trained cyclists. Eight male cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 28 ± 8 years; VO2peak = 66.8 ± 8.4 ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) completed 3 tests in a double-blind, randomized design over a 3-week timeframe: acute NaHCO3 loading (AL), serial NaHCO3 loading (SL), and a placebo loading condition (P). After each loading protocol, the cyclists completed a 4-minute performance test on a cycling ergometer. The VO2 was measured during each test, and blood samples were taken throughout the study to measure lactate, bicarbonate ion concentration ([HCO3(-)]), and pH levels. Both the AL and SL trials produced a significantly higher average power in the 4-minute test (mean ± SD; 3.3 ± 2.0 and 2.3 ± 2.5%; p < 0.001 and p = 0.01, respectively) when compared with the P trial, with no significant difference between AL and SL trials (p = 0.29). The AL trial produced a significantly greater postloading alkalosis as determined by blood [HCO3(-)] when compared with the SL and P trials. Both acute and serial NaHCO3 loading significantly improved 4-minute cycling performance when compared with that in a placebo trial. However, serial NaHCO3 loading may provide a convenient and practical alternative approach for athletes preparing for competition.

Can ten days of heat acclimation training improve temperate-condition rowing performance in national-level rowers?

This study investigated whether heat acclimation (HA) could improve rowing performance in temperate conditions in national-level rowers. Using a parallel-group design, eleven rowers (3 female, 8 male, age: 21±3 years, height: 182.3±6.8cm, mass: 79.2±9.0kg, [Formula: see text]: 61.4±5.1ml·kg·min-1) completed either a HA intervention (HEAT, n = 5) or acted as controls (CON, n = 6). The intervention replaced usual cross-training sessions and consisted of an hour of submaximal cycling or rowing ergometry in either 34±0°C for HEAT or 14±1°C for CON daily over two five-day blocks (10 sessions total), separated by 72h. Participants performed the '10+4' test that consists of 10-min submaximal rowing and a 4-min time-trial (TT) in temperate conditions (20±0°C) before and after the intervention. Heat acclimation following the 10-session intervention was evidenced by large significant (p<0.05) decreases in maximum tympanic temperature (d = -1.68) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (d = -2.26), and a large significant increase in sweat loss (d = 0.91). Large non-significant (p>0.05) decreases were seen in average tympanic temperature (d = -3.08) and average heart rate (d = -1.53) in HEAT from session 2 to session 10 of the intervention. Furthermore, a large significant increase was seen in plasma volume (d = 3.74), with large significant decreases in haemoglobin concentration (d = -1.78) and hematocrit (d = -12.9). Following the intervention, large non-significant increases in respiratory exchange ratio (d = 0.87) and blood lactate (d = 1.40) as well as a large non-significant decrease in RPE (d = -1.23) were seen in HEAT during the 10-min submaximal rowing. A large significant decrease in peak heart rate (d = -2.27), as well as a large non-significant decrease in relative [Formula: see text] (d = -0.90) and large non-significant increases in respiratory exchange ratio (d = 1.18), blood lactate concentration (d = 1.25) and power output (d = 0.96) were seen in HEAT during the 4-min TT. This study suggests that a 10-session HA intervention may elicit HA in national-level rowers, with potential to improve 4-min TT performance in temperate conditions.

Hot water immersion; potential to improve intermittent running performance and perception of in-game running ability in semi-professional Australian Rules Footballers?

This study investigated whether hot water immersion (HWI) could heat acclimate athletes and improve intermittent running performance and perception of in-game running ability, during a competitive Australian Rules Football (ARF) season. Fifteen male semi-professional ARF athletes (Mean (SD); age: 22 (3) years, height: 182.3 (6.5) cm, mass: 80.5 (5.1) kg) completed either HWI (HEAT, N = 8, 13 (2) sessions, 322 (69) min exposure, 39.5 (0.3) °C) or acted as a control (CON, N = 7, no water immersion) over 6-weeks. Athletes completed a 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test pre and post-intervention to assess intermittent running performance (VIFT), with perception of in-game running ability measured. Heat acclimation was determined via change in resting plasma volume, as well as physiological and perceptual responses during HWI. HEAT elicited large PV expansion (mean ± 90% CI: d = 1.03 ± 0.73), large decreases in heart rate (d = -0.89 ± 0.70), thermal sensation (d = -2.30 ± 1.15) and tympanic temperature (d = -1.18 ± 0.77). Large improvements in VIFT were seen in HEAT (d = 1.67 ± 0.93), with HEAT showing a greater improvement in VIFT when compared to CON (d = 0.81 ± 0.88). HEAT also showed greater belief that in-game running ability improved post-intervention (d = 2.15 ± 1.09) compared to CON. A 6-week HWI intervention can elicit heat acclimation, improve perception of in-game running ability, and potentially improve VIFT in semi-professional ARF athletes.

Effects of Time of Day on Pacing in a 4-km Time Trial in Trained Cyclists.

CONTEXT: Time of day has been shown to impact athletic performance, with improved performance observed in the late afternoon-early evening. Diurnal variations in physiological factors may contribute to variations in pacing selection; however, research investigating time-of-day influence on pacing is limited. PURPOSE: To investigate the influence of time-of-day on pacing selection in a 4-km cycling time trial (TT). METHODS: Nineteen trained male cyclists (mean [SD] age 39.0 [10.7] y, height 1.8 [0.1] m, body mass 78.0 [9.4] kg, VO2max 62.1 [8.7] mL·kg-1·min-1) completed a 4-km TT on 5 separate occasions at 08:30, 11:30, 14:30, 17:30, and 20:30. All TTs were completed in a randomized order, separated by a minimum of 2 d and maximum of 7 d. RESULTS: No time-of-day effects were observed in pacing as demonstrated by similar power outputs over 0.5-km intervals (P = .78) or overall mean power output (333.0 [38.9], 339.8 [37.2], 335.5 [31.2], 336.7 [35.2], and 334.9 [35.7] W; P = .45) when TTs were performed at 08:30, 11:30, 14:30, 17:30, and 20:30. Preexercise tympanic temperature demonstrated a time-of-day effect (P < .001), with tympanic temperature higher at 14:30 and 17:30 than at 08:30 and 11:30. CONCLUSION: While a biological rhythm was present in tympanic temperature, pacing selection and performance when completing a 4-km cycling TT were not influenced by time of day. The findings suggest that well-trained cyclists can maintain a robust pacing strategy for a 4-km TT regardless of time of the day.

Shoulder extension strength: a potential risk factor for shoulder pain in young swimmers?

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relationship and predictive value of isometric shoulder strength in the development of shoulder pain in young swimmers. DESIGN: Prospective, cohort study. METHODS: Shoulder flexion, extension, external and internal rotation strength tests were performed in elevation on 85 swimmers (14-20 years; 48 females) without current shoulder pain using a hand-held dynamometer. Following testing, swimmers were emailed questionnaires to determine if significant shoulder pain developed within 24 months subsequent to testing. The differences between shoulders that did and did not develop pain and the predictive ability of shoulder strength and strength ratios were investigated using Mann Whitney U tests and receiver operating characteristic curves. RESULTS: Thirty-seven swimmers (47%) returned questionnaires and 18 reported shoulder pain. A comparison of individual shoulders (27 with pain reported and 47 without) determined that shoulder extension strength was lower and flexion:extension strength ratio was higher for male swimmers (n=36 shoulders) who reported shoulder pain compared to those who did not (p=0.04). The predictive value of extension strength was fair (0.72; p=0.03) for males with a cut-off value for extension strength calculated at 13.5% body mass. There were no differences between the two groups in shoulder rotation strength, age, training hours or previous pain history. CONCLUSIONS: Shoulder extension strength, a functional test for swimmers, was associated with and predictive of the development of shoulder pain in male swimmers. Low shoulder extension strength may be a risk factor for the development of shoulder pain in swimmers, proposing a direction for injury prevention and future investigation.

Wearing compression socks during exercise aids subsequent performance.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of wearing compression socks on immediate and subsequent 5km running time trials, with particular attention to the influences on physiological, perceptual and performance-based parameters. DESIGN: Counter-balanced cross-over experiment. METHODS: Twelve male runners (mean±SD 5km run time 19:29±1:18min:s) each completed two experimental sessions. Sessions consisted of a standardised running warm-up, followed by a 5km time trial (TT1), a one hour recovery period, then a repeat of the warm-up and 5km time trial (TT2). One session required the use of sports compression socks during the first warm-up and time trial (COMP), while the other did not (CON). RESULTS: The decline in run performance in CON from TT1 to TT2 was moderate and significantly greater than that experienced by runners in COMP (9.6s, d=0.67, p<0.01). No difference was found between experimental conditions for oxygen consumption, blood lactate or calf volume (p=0.61, 0.54, 0.64, respectively). Perceptual measures of muscle soreness, fatigue and recovery were also similar between trials (p=0.56, 1.00 & 0.61, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Wearing sports compression socks during high intensity running has a positive impact on subsequent running performance. The underlying mechanism of such performance enhancement remains unclear, but may relate to improved oxygen delivery, reduced muscle oscillation, superior running mechanics and athlete beliefs.

Central-to-brachial blood pressure amplification in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Due to systolic blood pressure (SBP) amplification, brachial SBP may not accurately reflect central SBP, the pressure the organs are exposed to. Patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) have vascular irregularities that may affect blood pressure (BP) amplification and central BP indices (i.e. augmentation index [AIx] and augmentation pressure [AP]). By systematic review and meta-analysis, this study aimed firstly to determine the magnitude of central-to-brachial SBP and pulse pressure (PP) amplification in T2D compared to healthy controls and secondly, the difference in AIx and AP between the groups. Online databases were searched for published studies reporting invasive or non-invasive central and brachial SBP in T2D and healthy controls up to the 20th of February 2018. Random effects meta-analyses and meta-regression were used to analyze the studies. Eighteen studies (all non-invasive: 17 radial tonometry, 1 carotid tonometry, 2 brachial oscillometry) with a total of 2758 patients with T2D and 10,561 healthy controls were identified. There was no significant difference in SBP amplification between groups (T2D = 9.9 ± 4.7, healthy controls = 9.6 ± 4.5 mmHg, p = 0.84; pooled difference = 0.64 mmHg, 95%CI -0.27 1.54, p = 0.17) or PP amplification ratio (p = 0.16). However, among these studies, central BP indices (AIx corrected for heart rate and AP) were significantly higher in T2D (p < 0.05 for both). Despite a similar magnitude of central-to-brachial SBP amplification, patients with T2D have increased central systolic loading (AIx and AP) that cannot be discerned from brachial BP alone.