Exosome-mediated miR-146a transfer suppresses type I interferon response and facilitates EV71 infection.

Exosomes can transfer genetic materials between cells. Their roles in viral infections are beginning to be appreciated. Researches have shown that exosomes released from virus-infected cells contain a variety of viral and host cellular factors that are able to modulate recipient's cellular response and result in productive infection of the recipient host. Here, we showed that EV71 infection resulted in upregulated exosome secretion and differential packaging of the viral genomic RNA and miR-146a into exosomes. We provided evidence showing that miR-146a was preferentially enriched in exosomes while the viral RNA was not in infected cells. Moreover, the exosomes contained replication-competent EV71 RNA in complex with miR-146a, Ago2, and GW182 and could mediate EV71 transmission independent of virus-specific receptor. The exosomal viral RNA could be transferred to and replicate in a new target cell while the exosomal miR-146a suppressed type I interferon response in the target cell, thus facilitating the viral replication. Additionally, we found that the IFN-stimulated gene factors (ISGs), BST-2/tetherin, were involved in regulating EV71-induced upregulation of exosome secretion. Importantly, in vivo study showed that exosomal viral RNA exhibited differential tissue accumulation as compared to the free virus particles. Together, our findings provide evidence that exosomes secreted by EV71-infected cells selectively packaged high level miR-146a that can be functionally transferred to and facilitate exosomal EV71 RNA to replicate in the recipient cells by suppressing type I interferon response.

Compound C induces protective autophagy in human cholangiocarcinoma cells via Akt/mTOR-independent pathway.

Compound C, a well-known inhibitor of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), has been reported to exert antitumor activities in some types of cells. Whether compound C can exert antitumor effects in human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) remains unknown. Here, we demonstrated that compound C is a potent inducer of cell death and autophagy in human CCA cells. Autophagy inhibitors increased the cytotoxicity of compound C towards human CCA cells, as confirmed by increased LDH release, and PARP cleavage. It is notable that compound C treatment increased phosphorylated Akt, sustained high levels of phosphorylated p70S6K, and decreased mTOR regulated p-ULK1 (ser757). Based on the data that blocking PI3K/Akt or mTOR had no apparent influence on autophagic response, we suggest that compound C induces autophagy independent of Akt/mTOR signaling in human CCA cells. Further study demonstrated that compound C inhibited the phosphorylation of JNK and its target c-Jun. Blocking JNK by SP600125 or siRNA suppressed autophagy induction upon compound C treatment. Moreover, compound C induced p38 MAPK activation, and its inhibition promoted autophagy induction via JNK activation. In addition, compound C induced p53 expression, and its inhibition attenuated compound C-induced autophagic response. Thus, compound C triggers autophagy, at least in part, via the JNK and p53 pathways in human CCA cells. In conclusion, suppresses autophagy could increase compound C sensitivity in human CCA.

MOV10 interacts with Enterovirus 71 genomic 5'UTR and modulates viral replication.

As a cytoplasmic parasite, RNA virus develops sophisticated mechanisms to counter host defense and utilize host proteins to facilitate its replication. Here we found Moloney leukemia virus 10 (MOV10), a highly conserved cellular protein belonging to SF1 helicase family, played critical roles in EV71 infection. Silencing cellular MOV10 could restrict EV71 replication, while over-expressing MOV10 resulted in increased viral replication at low dosage and repressed viral replication at high dosage. Further investigation showed that MOV10 exhibited dual functions in EV71 regulation, its C-terminus positively regulated viral replication by binding to EV71 cloverleaf-like structure and the internal ribosome entry site while the N-terminus showed a potential antiviral activity when individually overexpressed. In addition, RNA-dependent interaction between MOV10 and HuR as well as the co-localization of MOV10 and processing bodies were also observed post infection. Taken together, our data indicate a crucial role of MOV10 in EV71 infection for the first time, providing new insights for its roles in EV71 infection.

Genetic polymorphisms in antioxidant enzyme genes and susceptibility to hepatocellular carcinoma in Chinese population: a case-control study.

An increased oxidant burden has been implicated in hepatocarcinogenesis, and several antioxidant enzymes counteract potential oxidative damage. So, polymorphisms in the genes encoding antioxidant enzymes may play an important role in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). To test this hypothesis, we investigated the association of polymorphisms in antioxidant enzyme genes, including three superoxide dismutases (SODs), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), with HCC in a Chinese population consisting of 434 HCC patients and 480 control subjects. Genotypes were determined by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Odds ratios (ORs) and 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CIs) were estimated by unconditional logistic regression. For the ECSOD Ala40Thr polymorphism, a significant association was observed between this polymorphism and HCC risk in non-hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers but not in HBV carriers, and individuals with one 40Thr allele (Ala/Thr genotype) (OR = 2.13, 95 % CI = 1.25-3.64, P = 0.006) or at least one 40Thr allele (Ala/Thr and Thr/Thr genotype) (OR = 1.90, 95 % CI = 1.15-3.15, P = 0.012) showed significantly higher risk to HCC, compared with Ala/Ala genotype. No significant associations were observed between three other polymorphisms (MnSOD Ala16Val, CAT-262C/T, GPx Pro198Leu) and HCC susceptibility in both HBV carriers and non-HBV carriers. Furthermore, no other signs of combined effects, except for a combined effect of ECSOD Ala40Thr and MnSOD Val16Ala in non-HBV carriers, were observed for each combination of these four polymorphisms. In conclusion, our results indicate that the antioxidant enzyme gene polymorphisms at least partially contribute to the susceptibility to HCC.

c-Met function requires N-linked glycosylation modification of pro-Met.

c-Met, the receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), is cell surface tyrosine kinase that controls cancer cell growth, survival, invasion, and metastasis. Post-translational modification, such as glycosylation, plays an essential role in regulating the function of cell surface molecules. Whether glycosylation modification regulates the enzymatic properties of c-Met is unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of glycosylation on the function of c-Met. We found that c-Met is an N-linked glycosylated protein. Both pro-Met and p145Met (the ß subunit of mature c-Met) have N-linked glycosylation. Glycosylation inhibitor studies revealed that the N-glycosylation modification of p145Met is from pro-Met, but not due to the further modification of pro-Met. Importantly, blocking the N-glycosylation targets pro-Met to cytoplasm and initiates its phosphorylation independent of HGF engagement. Nonglycosylated pro-Met activates c-Met downstream pathways to a certain extent to compensate for the degradation of p145Met induced by glycosylation blocking-mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress.

[Phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2-alpha inhibits cisplatin-mediated apoptosis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the phosphorylation (functionally inhibitive) of eukaryotic initiation factor 2-alpha (eIF2-a) affects the molecular mechanism of cisplatin-induced cellular apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). METHODS: The human HCC cultured cell lines SMMC-7221 and HepG2 were treated with cisplatin alone (controls; 24 h) or in combination with pre-transfection of a dominant-negative eIF2-a mutant (eIF2aS51A) or pre-exposure to an eIF2-a-specific phosphatase inhibitor (salubrinal) to decrease or increase the phosphorylation level, respectively. Changes in expression of apoptosis markers were quantitatively and qualitatively assessed by flow cytometry and western blot analysis. The significance of differences among groups was assessed by analysis of variance testing and of differences between groups was assessed by t-test. RESULTS: Cisplatin treatment induced the appropriate functional-inhibitive phosphorylation of eIF2-a on serine 51. Cisplatin treatment (10 mg/ml) induced significant apoptosis in the eIF2aS51A pre-transfected SMMC-7721 (control: 21.7 +/- 1.5% vs. 50.7 +/- 2.1%, t = 19.454, P less than 0.05) and HepG2 (21.0 +/- 1.0% vs. 57.3 +/- 2.1%, t = 27.250, P less than 0.05). Salubrinal pre-treatment significantly inhibited the cisplatin (15 mg/ml)-induced apoptosis in SMMC-7721 (control: 50.3 +/- 2.5% vs. 16.3 +/- 2.1%, t = 18.031, P less than 0.05) and HepG2 (42.0 +/- 2.6% vs. 12.0 +/- 2.0%, t = 15.667, P less than 0.05). CONCLUSION: Phosphorylation of eIF2-a may act to inhibit cisplatin-induced apoptosis of HCC.

Promyelocytic Leukemia Restricts Enterovirus 71 Replication by Inhibiting Autophagy.

The promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein, also known as TRIM19, functions as a major organizer of PML nuclear bodies (NBs) in most mammalian cells and plays important roles in antiviral activities against both DNA and RNA viruses. In this study, we found that the downregulation of PML rendered HeLa cells more susceptible to infection by enterovirus 71 (EV71), and the overexpression of the PMLIII or PMLIV isoforms inhibited viral protein expression and resulted in viral titers that were 2-3 log units lower than those in the control. Using short interfering RNAs, the downregulation of either the PMLIII or PMLIV isoform increased both viral protein VP1 expression and viral production. The PML repression of EV71 replication was partially mediated by the inhibition of autophagy, and PML deficiency triggered autophagy. Furthermore, the EV71 infection resulted in a reduction in PML independent of the proteasome pathway. Instead, PML degradation was mediated by virus protease 3Cpro. In conclusion, PML contributes to a cellular antiviral effect by inhibiting autophagy, which is countered by a disruption of promyelocytic leukemia protein-nuclear bodies mediated by viral protease 3Cpro.

Long noncoding RNA NKILA enhances the anti-cancer effects of baicalein in hepatocellular carcinoma via the regulation of NF-κB signaling.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancer and leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Baicalein, a principle flavonoid, has shown attractive anti-cancer effects on HCC. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms and influencing factors contributing to the anti-cancer effects of baicalein on HCC are still largely unknown. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been revealed to be fascinating therapeutic targets for cancers. The roles of NF-κB Interacting LncRNA (NKILA) are recently explored in several cancers. However, the expressions, clinical significances, roles and action mechanisms of NKILA in the anti-cancer effects of baicalein on HCC are unknown. In this study, we found that NKILA is down-regulated in HCC and reduced expression of NKILA indicts poor survival of HCC patients. Functional assays showed that overexpression of NKILA enhances the roles of baicalein on HCC cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis induction, and migration inhibition in vitro and tumor growth suppression in vivo. Conversely, knockdown of NKILA suppresses the effects of baicalein. Mechanistically, we found that NKILA inhibits IκBα phosphorylation, NF-κB nuclear translocation, and NF-κB activity. NKILA also enhances the inhibitory effects of baicalein on NF-κB signaling. Furthermore, the effects of NKILA on baicalein-induced NF-κB activity inhibition, cell growth inhibition, apoptosis induction, and migration inhibition are reversed by NF-κB nuclear translocation inhibitor JSH-23. Collectively, our data demonstrated that NKILA enhances the anti-cancer effects of baicalein on HCC in vitro and in vivo via the regulation of NF-κB signaling, and implied that the combination of NKILA and baicalein would be potential therapeutic strategies for HCC.

Salubrinal Enhances Doxorubicin Sensitivity in Human Cholangiocarcinoma Cells Through Promoting DNA Damage.

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a highly malignant and aggressive tumor of the bile duct that arises from epithelial cells. Chemotherapy is an important treatment strategy for CCA patients, but its efficacy remains limited due to drug resistance. Salubrinal, an inhibitor of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α), has been reported to affect antitumor activities in cancer chemotherapy. In this study, the authors investigated the effect of salubrinal on the chemosensitivity of doxorubicin in CCA cells. They showed that doxorubicin induces CCA cell death in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Doxorubicin triggers reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and induces DNA damage in CCA cells. In addition, ROS inhibitor N-acetylcysteine (NAC) pretreatment inhibits doxorubicin-induced CCA cell death. Importantly, these data demonstrate a synergistic death induction effect contributed by the combination of salubrinal and doxorubicin in CCA cells. It is notable that salubrinal promotes doxorubicin-induced ROS production and DNA damage in CCA cells. Taken together, these data suggest that salubrinal enhances the sensitivity of doxorubicin in CCA cells through promoting ROS-mediated DNA damage.

Reduction in activating transcription factor 4 promotes carbon tetrachloride and lipopolysaccharide/D­galactosamine­mediated liver injury in mice.

Although activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is involved in the regulation of numerous biological functions, whether ATF4 has a direct role in liver injury is unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of ATF4 in liver injury using mouse models. The results revealed that ATF4 protein is expressed markedly higher in the mouse liver when in comparison with other tissues. Notably, tunicamycin treatment, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress inducer, induced the phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), but decreased ATF4 protein levels in the mouse liver. This suggested an unconventional regulation pattern of ATF4 protein not associated with ER stress or eIF2α. In addition, it was also observed that the liver levels of ATF4 protein were significantly reduced upon chronic liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). ATF4 protein was also decreased in acute liver injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) plus D­galactosamine (D­GalN). Furthermore, the results revealed that knockdown of ATF4 by injecting ATF4­targeting Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)­CRISPR associated protein 9 plasmids exacerbated CCl4 and LPS/D­GalN­induced liver injury as demonstrated by elevated serum aspartate transaminase and alanine aminotransferase levels. ATF4 suppression also enhanced CCl4 and LPS/D­GalN mediated c­Jun N­terminal kinase activation. By contrast, ATF4 overexpression alleviated CCl4 and LPS/D­GalN­induced liver injury. Taken together, these observations suggested that ATF4 may serve a protective role in the mouse liver.

Associations of hyperuricemia and obesity with remission of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among Chinese men: A retrospective cohort study.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic disease that is associated with high serum uric acid (SUA) levels, although the effects of high SUA levels on NAFLD remission remain unclear. In addition, it is unclear whether obesity and high SUA levels have a combined effect on NAFLD remission. This retrospective cohort study evaluated male employees of seven Chinese companies and investigated the association between high SUA levels and NAFLD remission, as well as the potential combined effect of high SUA levels and obesity on NAFLD remission. The study followed 826 men with NAFLD for 4 years, and the NAFLD remission rate was 23.2% (192/826). Comparing to obese and non-obese individuals with normouricemia, individuals with hyperuricemia had significant higher values for total cholesterol, triglycerides, creatinine, and aspartate transaminase (all P < 0.05). Among non-obese individuals, hyperuricemia was associated with a lower NAFLD remission rate, compared to normouricemia (P < 0.001). However, no significant difference was observed between hyperuricemia and normouricemia among obese subjects (P > 0.05). Similar results were observed in the multivariate cox proportional hazard regression analyses. Compared to the normouricemia subjects, individuals with hyperuricemia had a significant lower likelihood of NAFLD remission (RR = 0.535, 95% CI: 0.312-0.916); and obese subjects had a significant lower likelihood of NAFLD remission than the non-obese individuals (RR = 0.635, 95% CI: 0.439-0.918). In addition, the interaction between hyperuricemia and obesity had a statistically significant effect on NAFLD remission (P = 0.048). In conclusion, hyperuricemia and obesity may be involved in NAFLD development and remission, with similar pathogenic mechanisms. Further studies are needed to confirm our findings and determine how to improve these individuals' conditions.

Association between the hyperuricemia and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease risk in a Chinese population: A retrospective cohort study.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a common chronic disease associated with high levels of serum uric acid (SUA). However, whether this relationship applies in obese subjects has been unclear, and no cohort study has previously been conducted in non-obese subjects. We therefore performed a retrospective cohort study among employees of seven companies in China to investigate whether hyperuricemia was independently associated with NAFLD in obese and non-obese subjects, respectively. A total of 2383 initially NAFLD-free subjects were followed up for four years, and 15.2% (363/2383) developed NAFLD. Hyperuricemia subjects had a higher cumulative incidence than did those with normouricemia (29.0% vs. 12.9%, P<0.001). Cox proportional hazard regression analyses showed that baseline hyperuricemia was significantly associated with risk of developing NAFLD in non-obese subjects. This relationship was significantly independent of baseline age, gender, metabolic syndrome components, and other clinical variables (RR = 1.389, 95%CI: 1.051-2.099). However, this association did not exist in obese subjects (RR = 1.010, 95%CI: 0.649-1.571). The independent effect of hyperuricemia on NAFLD was stronger in females (RR = 2.138, 95%CI: 1.050-4.355) than in males (RR = 1.435, 95%CI: 1.021-2.018). In conclusion, further studies are needed to explore the different mechanisms between obese and non-obese subjects, and the reason hyperuricemia raises NAFLD risk in females more than in males.

miR-127-5p negatively regulates enterovirus 71 replication by directly targeting SCARB2.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is the major causative agent of hand-foot-and-mouth disease in young children and can cause severe cerebral and pulmonary complications and even fatality. This study aimed at elucidating whether and how EV71 infection is regulated by a cellular microRNA, miR-127-5p. We found that miR-127-5p can downregulate the expression of SCARB2, a main receptor of EV71, by targeting two potential sites in its 3' UTR region and inhibit EV71 infection. Meanwhile, miR-127-5p expression was upregulated during EV71 infection. Notably, transfecting cells with miR-127-5p mimics led to a significant decrease in viral replication, while inhibition of endogenous miR-127-5p facilitated viral replication. Furthermore, our evidence showed that miR-127-5p did not affect postentry viral replication. Taken together, these results indicated that miR-127-5p inhibited EV71 replication by targeting the SCARB2 mRNA.

c­Myc promotes cholangiocarcinoma cells to overcome contact inhibition via the mTOR pathway.

The loss of contact inhibition is a hallmark of a wide range of human cancer cells. Yet, the precise mechanism behind this process is not fully understood. c­Myc plays a pivotal role in carcinogenesis, but its involvement in regulating contact inhibition has not been explored to date. Here, we report that c­Myc plays an important role in abrogating contact inhibition in human cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) cells. Our data show that the protein level of c­Myc obviously decreased in contact-inhibited normal biliary epithelial cells. However, CCA cells sustain high protein levels of c­Myc and keep strong proliferation ability in confluent conditions. Importantly, the suppression of c­Myc by inhibitor or siRNA induced G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest in confluent CCA cells. We demonstrate that the inhibition of c­Myc suppressed the activity of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in confluent CCA cells, and mTOR inhibition induced G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest in confluent CCA cells. In confluent CCA cells, the activity of Merlin is downregulated, and Yes-associated protein (YAP) sustains high levels of activity. Furthermore, YAP inhibition not only induced G0/G1 phase cell cycle arrest, but also decreased c­Myc expression in confluent CCA cells. These results indicate that Merlin/YAP/c­Myc/mTOR signaling axis promotes human CCA cell proliferation by overriding contact inhibition. We propose that overriding c­Myc­mediated contact inhibition is implicated in the development of CCA.

Overexpression of the long noncoding RNA TUG1 protects against cold-induced injury of mouse livers by inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation.

UNLABELLED: Hepatic injury provoked by cold storage is a major problem affecting liver transplantation, as exposure to cold induces apoptosis in hepatic tissues. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are increasingly understood to regulate apoptosis, but the contribution of lncRNAs to cold-induced liver injury remains unknown. Using RNA-seq, we determined the differential lncRNA expression profile in mouse livers after cold storage and found that expression of the lncRNA TUG1 was significantly down-regulated. Overexpression of TUG1 attenuated cold-induced apoptosis in mouse hepatocytes and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells LSECs, in part by blocking mitochondrial apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways. Moreover, TUG1 attenuated apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress in vivo in livers subjected to cold storage. Overexpression of TUG1 also improved hepatocyte function and prolonged hepatic graft survival rates in mice. These results suggest that the lncRNA TUG1 exerts a protective effect against cold-induced liver damage by inhibiting apoptosis in mice, and suggests a potential role for TUG1 as a target for the prevention of cold-induced liver damage in liver transplantation. DATABASES: RNA-seq data are available from GEO using accession number GSE76609.

Unfolded Protein Response Promotes Doxorubicin-Induced Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Cells Apoptosis via the mTOR Pathway Inhibition.

Drug resistance is extremely common in nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and is one of the major problems in NSCLC chemotherapy. However, the detailed mechanisms remain largely unknown. Unfolded protein response (UPR) is involved in the tumorigenesis of NSCLC. Here, the authors demonstrated that the UPR promotes poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase activation (PARP) cleavage in NSCLC cells on doxorubicin treatment, which is a hallmark of apoptosis and caspase activation. In NSCLC cells, doxorubicin treatment triggers the UPR activation, which subsequently promotes doxorubicin-mediated apoptosis. Importantly, mild endoplasmic reticulum stress precondition enhances the sensitivity of NSCLC cells to doxorubicin-initiated apoptosis. Furthermore, the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) branch of the UPR is involved in the synergistic role of the UPR in NSCLC cell apoptosis on doxorubicin treatment. They also demonstrated that the mTOR pathway plays an essential role in synergistic induction of apoptosis by the UPR and doxorubicin in NSCLC cells. Taken together, these results provide a potential mechanism that the UPR promotes doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in NSCLC cells, at least in part, by eIF2α-mediated mTOR signal inactivation.

Synergistic antitumor activity of the combination of salubrinal and rapamycin against human cholangiocarcinoma cells.

Less is known about the roles of eukaryotic initiation factor alpha (eIF2α) in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Here, we report that eIF2α inhibitor salubrinal inhibits the proliferation of human CCA cells. Clinical application of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors only has moderate antitumor efficacy. Therefore, combination approaches may be required for effective clinical use of mTOR inhibitors. Here, we investigated the efficacy of the combination of salubrinal and rapamycin in the treatment of CCA. Our data demonstrate a synergistic antitumor effect of the combination of salubrinal and rapamycin against CCA cells. Rapamycin significantly inhibits the proliferation of CCA cells. However, rapamycin initiates a negative feedback activation of Akt. Inhibition of Akt by salubrinal potentiates the efficacy of rapamycin both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, rapamycin treatment results in the up-regulation of Bcl-xL in a xenograft mouse model. It is notable that salubrinal inhibits rapamycin-induced Bcl-xL up-regulation in vivo. Taken together, our data suggest that salubrinal and rapamycin combination might be a new and effective strategy for the treatment of CCA.

Enterovirus 71 induces autophagy by regulating has-miR-30a expression to promote viral replication.

Enterovirus 71 (EV71), the etiological agent of hand-foot-and-mouth disease, has increasingly become a public health challenge around the world. Previous studies reported that EV71 infection can induce autophagic machinery to enhance viral replication in vitro and in vivo, but did not address the underlying mechanisms. Increasing evidence suggests that autophagy, in a virus-specific manner, may function to degrade viruses or facilitate viral replication. In this study, we reported that EV71 infection of human epidermoid carcinoma (Hep2) and African green monkey kidney cells (Vero) induced autophagy, which is beneficial for viral replication. Our investigation of the mechanisms revealed that EV71 infection resulted in the reduction of cellular miR-30a, which led to the inhibition of Beclin-1, a key autophagy-promoting gene that plays important roles at the early phase of autophagosome formation. We provided further evidence that by modulating cellular miR-30a level through either overexpression or inhibition, one can inhibit or promote EV71 replication, respectively, through regulating autophagic activity.

JNK contributes to the tumorigenic potential of human cholangiocarcinoma cells through the mTOR pathway regulated GRP78 induction.

Less is known about the roles of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Here, we report that JNK exerts its oncogenic action in human CCA cells, partially due to the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway regulated glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78) induction. In human CCA cells, the phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor alpha (eIF2α) results in the accumulation of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and GRP78 independent of unfolded protein response (UPR). Suppression of GRP78 expression decreases the proliferation and invasion of human CCA cells. It's notable that mTOR is required for eIF2α phosphorylation-induced ATF4 and GRP78 expression. Importantly, JNK promotes eIF2α/ATF4-mediated GRP78 induction through regulating the activity of mTOR. Thus, our study implicates JNK/mTOR signaling plays an important role in cholangiocarcinogenesis, partially through promoting the eIF2α/ATF4/GRP78 pathway.

Irreversible sediment formation in green tea infusions.

The formation of irreversible tea sediment (IRS) and its chemical components in green tea infusions were investigated. The results showed that the amounts of IRS in the green tea infusions from various tea cultivars ranged from 0.10 to 1.47 mg/mL. The amount of IRS was influenced remarkably by the chemical components in the green tea infusion. Principal component analysis and regression analysis indicated that gallated catechins, Mn, Ca, caffeine, Na, and (-)-gallocatechin gallate (GCG) were the principal components. IRS (mg/mL) = -4.226 + 0.275 gallated catechins + 79.551 Na + 7.321 Mn + 21.055 Ca + 0.513 caffeine - 0.129 GCG (R2 = 0.697). The contents of the main chemical components in the reversible tea sediment (RTS) and IRS were markedly different, especially the minerals. Large amount of minerals participated in the formation of irreversible green tea sediment. The amount of IRS increased with the extraction temperature.