Retinal Molecular Changes Are Associated with Neuroinflammation and Loss of RGCs in an Experimental Model of Glaucoma.

Signaling mediated by cytokines and chemokines is involved in glaucoma-associated neuroinflammation and in the damage of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Using multiplexed immunoassay and immunohistochemical techniques in a glaucoma mouse model at different time points after ocular hypertension (OHT), we analyzed (i) the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory cytokines, BDNF, VEGF, and fractalkine; and (ii) the number of Brn3a+ RGCs. In OHT eyes, there was an upregulation of (i) IFN-γ at days 3, 5, and 15; (ii) IL-4 at days 1, 3, 5, and 7 and IL-10 at days 3 and 5 (coinciding with downregulation of IL1-ß at days 1, 5, and 7); (iii) IL-6 at days 1, 3, and 5; (iv) fractalkine and VEGF at day 1; and (v) BDNF at days 1, 3, 7, and 15. In contralateral eyes, there were (i) an upregulation of IL-1ß at days 1 and 3 and a downregulation at day 7, coinciding with the downregulation of IL4 at days 3 and 5 and the upregulation at day 7; (ii) an upregulation of IL-6 at days 1, 5, and 7 and a downregulation at 15 days; (iii) an upregulation of IL-10 at days 3 and 7; and (iv) an upregulation of IL-17 at day 15. In OHT eyes, there was a reduction in the Brn3a+ RGCs number at days 3, 5, 7, and 15. OHT changes cytokine levels in both OHT and contralateral eyes at different time points after OHT induction, confirming the immune system involvement in glaucomatous neurodegeneration.

The protective role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma in lipotoxic podocytes.

Podocytes are specialized epithelial cells that maintain the glomerular filtration barrier. These cells are susceptible to lipotoxicity in the obese state and irreversibly lost during kidney disease leading to proteinuria and renal injury. PPARγ is a nuclear receptor whose activation can be renoprotective. This study examined the role of PPARγ in the lipotoxic podocyte using a PPARγ knockout (PPARγKO) cell line and since the activation of PPARγ by Thiazolidinediones (TZD) is limited by their side effects, it explored other alternative therapies to prevent podocyte lipotoxic damage. Wild-type and PPARγKO podocytes were exposed to the fatty acid palmitic acid (PA) and treated with the TZD (Pioglitazone) and/or the Retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonist Bexarotene (BX). It revealed that podocyte PPARγ is essential for podocyte function. PPARγ deletion reduced key podocyte proteins including podocin and nephrin while increasing basal levels of oxidative and ER stress causing apoptosis and cell death. A combination therapy of low-dose TZD and BX activated both the PPARγ and RXR receptors reducing PA-induced podocyte damage. This study confirms the crucial role of PPARγ in podocyte biology and that their activation in combination therapy of TZD and BX may be beneficial in the treatment of obesity-related kidney disease.