Forest disturbance and vector transmitted diseases in the lowland tropical rainforest of central Panama.

OBJECTIVE: To explore possible changes in the community attributes of haematophagous insects as a function of forest disturbance. We compare the patterns of diversity and abundance, plus the behavioural responses of three epidemiologically distinct vector assemblages across sites depicting various levels of forest cover. METHODS: Over a 3-year period, we sampled mosquitoes, sandflies and biting-midges in forested habitats of central Panama. We placed CDC light traps in the forest canopy and in the understorey to gather blood-seeking females. RESULTS: We collected 168 405 adult haematophagous dipterans in total, including 26 genera and 86 species. Pristine forest settings were always more taxonomically diverse than the disturbed forest sites, confirming that disturbance has a negative impact on species richness. Species of Phlebotominae and Culicoides were mainly classified as climax (i.e. forest specialist) or disturbance-generalist, which tend to decrease in abundance along with rising levels of disturbance. In contrast, a significant portion of mosquito species, including primary and secondary disease vectors, was classified as colonists (i.e. disturbed-areas specialists), which tend to increase in numbers towards more disturbed forest habitats. At pristine forest, the most prevalent species of Phlebotominae and Culicoides partitioned the vertical niche by being active at the forest canopy or in the understorey; yet this pattern was less clear in disturbed habitats. Most mosquito species were not vertically stratified in their habitat preference. CONCLUSION: We posit that entomological risk and related pathogen exposure to humans is higher in pristine forest scenarios for Culicoides and Phlebotominae transmitted diseases, whereas forest disturbance poses a higher entomological risk for mosquito-borne infections. This suggests that the Dilution Effect Hypothesis (DEH) does not apply in tropical rainforests where highly abundant, yet unrecognised insect vectors and neglected zoonotic diseases occur. Comprehensive, community level entomological surveillance is, therefore, the key for predicting potential disease spill over in scenarios of pristine forest intermixed with anthropogenic habitats. We suggest that changes in forest quality should also be considered when assessing arthropod-borne disease transmission risk.

OBJECTIF: Explorer les changements possibles dans les attributs communautaires des insectes hématophages en fonction de la perturbation des forêts. Nous comparons les modèles de diversité et d'abondance, ainsi que les réponses comportementales de trois assemblages de vecteurs épidémiologiquement distincts sur des sites illustrant divers niveaux de couverture forestière. MÉTHODES: Au cours d'une période de trois ans, nous avons échantillonné des moustiques, des phlébotomes et des moucherons piqueurs dans les habitats forestiers du centre de Panama. Nous avons placé des pièges à lumière CDC dans la canopée de la forêt et dans le sous-étage pour recueillir les femelles en quête de sang. RÉSULTATS: Nous avons collecté un total de 168.405 diptères hématophages adultes, dont 26 genres et 86 espèces. Les environnements de forêt intacts étaient toujours plus diversifiés du point de vue taxonomique que les sites forestiers perturbés, confirmant que les perturbations avaient un impact négatif sur la richesse en espèces. Les espèces de phlébotome et Culicoïdes étaient principalement classés comme climax (spécialiste de la forêt) ou généralistes de perturbation, qui ont tendance à diminuer en abondance parallèlement aux niveaux croissants de perturbation. En revanche, une partie importante des espèces de moustiques, y compris les vecteurs primaires et secondaires de maladies, a été classée dans la catégorie des colons (c'est-à-dire spécialistes des zones perturbées), qui ont tendance à se multiplier vers des habitats forestiers plus perturbés. Dans la forêt vierge, les espèces de phlébotomes et Culicoïdes les plus répandues cloisonnaient la niche verticale en étant actives dans la canopée de la forêt ou dans le sous-étage; pourtant, cette tendance était moins nette dans les habitats perturbés. La plupart des espèces de moustiques n'étaient pas stratifiées verticalement dans leur préférence d'habitat. CONCLUSION: Nous estimons que le risque entomologique et l'exposition associée des agents pathogènes à l'homme est plus élevé dans les scénarios de forêt vierge pour les maladies transmises par les phlébotomes et Culicoïdes, alors que la perturbation des forêts pose un risque entomologique plus élevé pour les infections transmises par les moustiques. Cela suggère que l'hypothèse de l'effet de dilution ne s'applique pas dans les forêts tropicales humides où se reproduisent très abondamment les insectes vecteurs, mais non reconnus, et où des maladies zoonotiques négligées surviennent. Une surveillance entomologique approfondie au niveau de la communauté est donc la clé pour prédire le potentiel de propagation des maladies dans des scénarios de forêt vierge mélangée à des habitats anthropiques. Nous suggérons que les changements dans la qualité des forêts soient également pris en compte lors de l'évaluation du risque de propagation de maladies transmises par les arthropodes.

Mosquitoes of eastern Amazonian Ecuador: biodiversity, bionomics and barcodes.

Two snapshot surveys to establish the diversity and ecological preferences of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the terra firme primary rain forest surrounding the Tiputini Biodiversity Station in the UNESCO Yasuní Biosphere Reserve of eastern Amazonian Ecuador were carried out in November 1998 and May 1999. The mosquito fauna of this region is poorly known; the focus of this study was to obtain high quality link-reared specimens that could be used to unequivocally confirm species level diversity through integrated systematic study of all life stages and DNA sequences. A total of 2,284 specimens were preserved; 1,671 specimens were link-reared with associated immature exuviae, all but 108 of which are slide mounted. This study identified 68 unique taxa belonging to 17 genera and 27 subgenera. Of these, 12 are new to science and 37 comprise new country records. DNA barcodes [658-bp of the mtDNA cytochrome c oxidase (COI) I gene] are presented for 58 individuals representing 20 species and nine genera. DNA barcoding proved useful in uncovering and confirming new species and we advocate an integrated systematics approach to biodiversity studies in future. Associated bionomics of all species collected are discussed. An updated systematic checklist of the mosquitoes of Ecuador (n=179) is presented for the first time in 60 years.

Mosquito bisection as a variable in estimates of PCR-derived malaria sporozoite rates.

BACKGROUND: Highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods offer an alternative to the light microscopy examination of mosquito salivary glands for the determination of malaria sporozoite rates in wild caught female Anopheles. Removal of mosquito abdomens is assumed to eliminate false positives caused by malaria oocyst DNA in the midgut. This assumption has not been tested with current gold standard PCR assays, and for the variety of conditions that specimens could encounter in the laboratory and field. METHODS: Laboratory Anopheles stephensi were used that had been infected with Plasmodium falciparum 6-7 days and 14 days post infection (p.i.), when oocysts only and oocysts + sporozoites, respectively, are developed. Mosquitoes were killed and immediately frozen, air dried before being frozen, or stored under humid conditions overnight before being frozen, to simulate a range of conditions in the field. Additionally, abdomens were removed anterior to, at, or posterior to the junction of the abdomen and thorax, and both portions were processed using a standard nested PCR of the small sub-unit nuclear ribosomal genes (ssrDNA) with products visualized on agarose gels. RESULTS: Overall, 4.1 % (4/97) of head + thorax samples that were 6-7 days p.i. gave apparent false positives for sporozoites, compared to 9.3 % (9/97) that were positive for abdomens. No positives (0/52) were obtained when similar specimens were bisected anterior to the junction of the thorax and abdomen, compared to 21.2 % (11/52) that were positive for posterior portions. Multiple bands were noted for positives from the 'Frozen' treatment and the rate of false negatives due to DNA degradation appears higher under the 'Humid' treatment. Reproducibility of results for the 'Frozen' treatment was 90 %. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the importance of specimen condition and the bisection step in determining sporozoite rates, little attention has been paid to them in the literature. Recommendations from this study are that: 1) care needs to be taken to reduce DNA degradation in the field; 2) mosquito abdomens be separated anterior to the junction of the thorax and abdomen; and 3) DNA sequencing of a subsample of positive results should be undertaken if possible.

The AFHSC-Division of GEIS Operations Predictive Surveillance Program: a multidisciplinary approach for the early detection and response to disease outbreaks.

The Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, Division of Global Emerging Infections Surveillance and Response System Operations (AFHSC-GEIS) initiated a coordinated, multidisciplinary program to link data sets and information derived from eco-climatic remote sensing activities, ecologic niche modeling, arthropod vector, animal disease-host/reservoir, and human disease surveillance for febrile illnesses, into a predictive surveillance program that generates advisories and alerts on emerging infectious disease outbreaks. The program's ultimate goal is pro-active public health practice through pre-event preparedness, prevention and control, and response decision-making and prioritization. This multidisciplinary program is rooted in over 10 years experience in predictive surveillance for Rift Valley fever outbreaks in Eastern Africa. The AFHSC-GEIS Rift Valley fever project is based on the identification and use of disease-emergence critical detection points as reliable signals for increased outbreak risk. The AFHSC-GEIS predictive surveillance program has formalized the Rift Valley fever project into a structured template for extending predictive surveillance capability to other Department of Defense (DoD)-priority vector- and water-borne, and zoonotic diseases and geographic areas. These include leishmaniasis, malaria, and Crimea-Congo and other viral hemorrhagic fevers in Central Asia and Africa, dengue fever in Asia and the Americas, Japanese encephalitis (JE) and chikungunya fever in Asia, and rickettsial and other tick-borne infections in the U.S., Africa and Asia.

Mosquito species composition and Plasmodium vivax infection rates on Baengnyeong-do (island), Republic of Korea.

Vivax malaria is a significant military and civilian health threat in the north of the Republic of Korea (ROK). The island of Baengnyeong-do is the westernmost point of the ROK and is located close to the southwestern coast of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). Mosquitoes were collected using a black light trap on Baengnyeong-do, and Anopheles spp. were assayed by PCR, to identify the species, and screened for sporozoites of Plasmodium vivax. Of a subsample of 257 mosquitoes, Anopheles lesteri was the most frequently collected (49.8%), followed by Anopheles sinensis (22.6%), Anopheles pullus (18.7%), Anopheles kleini (7.8%), and Anopheles belenrae (1.2%). The overall sporozoite rate was 3.1%, with the highest rates observed in An. kleini (15.0%), An. sinensis (5.2%), and An. lesteri (1.6%). No sporozoite positive An. pullus or An. belenrae were observed. The results extend our knowledge of the distribution and potential role in malaria transmission of An. kleini, An. lesteri, and An. sinensis, for an area previously considered to be at a low risk for contracting vivax malaria.

Species composition, larval habitats, seasonal occurrence and distribution of potential malaria vectors and associated species of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Republic of Korea.

BACKGROUND: Larval mosquito habitats of potential malaria vectors and related species of Anopheles from three provinces (Gyeonggi, Gyeongsangbuk, Chungcheongbuk Provinces) of the Republic of Korea were surveyed in 2007. This study aimed to determine the species composition, seasonal occurrence and distributions of Anopheles mosquitoes. Satellite derived normalized difference vegetation index data (NDVI) was also used to study the seasonal abundance patterns of Anopheles mosquitoes. METHODS: Mosquito larvae from various habitats were collected using a standard larval dipper or a white plastic larval tray, placed in plastic bags, and were preserved in 100% ethyl alcohol for species identification by PCR and DNA sequencing. The habitats in the monthly larval surveys included artificial containers, ground depressions, irrigation ditches, drainage ditches, ground pools, ponds, rice paddies, stream margins, inlets and pools, swamps, and uncultivated fields. All field-collected specimens were identified to species, and relationships among habitats and locations based on species composition were determined using cluster statistical analysis. RESULTS: In about 10,000 specimens collected, eight species of Anopheles belonging to three groups were identified: Hyrcanus Group - Anopheles sinensis, Anopheles kleini, Anopheles belenrae, Anopheles pullus, Anopheles lesteri, Anopheles sineroides; Barbirostris Group - Anopheles koreicus; and Lindesayi Group - Anopheles lindesayi japonicus. Only An. sinensis was collected from all habitats groups, while An. kleini, An. pullus and An. sineroides were sampled from all, except artificial containers. The highest number of Anopheles larvae was found in the rice paddies (34.8%), followed by irrigation ditches (23.4%), ponds (17.0%), and stream margins, inlets and pools (12.0%). Anopheles sinensis was the dominant species, followed by An. kleini, An. pullus and An. sineroides. The monthly abundance data of the Anopheles species from three locations (Munsan, Jinbo and Hayang) were compared against NDVI and NDVI anomalies. CONCLUSION: The species composition of Anopheles larvae varied in different habitats at various locations. Anopheles populations fluctuated with the seasonal dynamics of vegetation for 2007. Multi-year data of mosquito collections are required to provide a better characterization of the abundance of these insects from year to year, which can potentially provide predictive capability of their population density based on remotely sensed ecological measurements.

MosquitoMap and the Mal-area calculator: new web tools to relate mosquito species distribution with vector borne disease.

BACKGROUND: Mosquitoes are important vectors of diseases but, in spite of various mosquito faunistic surveys globally, there is a need for a spatial online database of mosquito collection data and distribution summaries. Such a resource could provide entomologists with the results of previous mosquito surveys, and vector disease control workers, preventative medicine practitioners, and health planners with information relating mosquito distribution to vector-borne disease risk. RESULTS: A web application called MosquitoMap was constructed comprising mosquito collection point data stored in an ArcGIS 9.3 Server/SQL geodatabase that includes administrative area and vector species x country lookup tables. In addition to the layer containing mosquito collection points, other map layers were made available including environmental, and vector and pathogen/disease distribution layers. An application within MosquitoMap called the Mal-area calculator (MAC) was constructed to quantify the area of overlap, for any area of interest, of vector, human, and disease distribution models. Data standards for mosquito records were developed for MosquitoMap. CONCLUSION: MosquitoMap is a public domain web resource that maps and compares georeferenced mosquito collection points to other spatial information, in a geographical information system setting. The MAC quantifies the Mal-area, i.e. the area where it is theoretically possible for vector-borne disease transmission to occur, thus providing a useful decision tool where other disease information is limited. The Mal-area approach emphasizes the independent but cumulative contribution to disease risk of the vector species predicted present. MosquitoMap adds value to, and makes accessible, the results of past collecting efforts, as well as providing a template for other arthropod spatial databases.

Validation of ecological niche models for potential malaria vectors in the Republic of Korea.

Data on molecularly identified adult and larval mosquitoes collected from 104 sites from the Republic of Korea (ROK) in 2007 were used to test the predictive ability of recently reported ecological niche models (ENMs) for 8 potential malaria vectors. The ENMs, based on the program Maxent and the least presence threshold criterion, predicted 100% of new collection locations for Anopheles sinensis, An. belenrae, An. pullus, and An. sineroides; 96% of locations for An. kleini; and 83% for An. lesteri, but were relatively unsuccessful for the infrequently collected non-Hyrcanus group species An. koreicus and An. lindesayi japonicas. The ENMs produced with the use of Maxent had fewer omission errors than those using the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-Set Prediction program. The results emphasize the importance of independent test data for validation and improvement of ENMs, and lend support for the further development of ENMs for predicting the distribution of malaria vectors in the ROK.

Anopheles belenrae, a potential vector of Plasmodium vivax in the Republic of Korea.

The malarial parasite, Plasmodium vivax, was detected in 4 species of Anopheles (Hyrcanus Group) mosquitoes, namely An. kleini, An. pullus, An. belenrae, and An. sinensis, from Gyeonggi Province, Republic of Korea (ROK). This study confirmed that An. belenrae was infected by P. vivax, and implicated this species as a potential vector of vivax malaria in the ROK.

Assessing the current and future potential geographic distribution of the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis (Say) (Acari: Ixodidae) in North America.

The American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis, is a veterinary- and medically- significant tick species that is known to transmit several diseases to animal and human hosts. The spatial distribution of this species in North America is not well understood, however; and knowledge of likely changes to its future geographic distribution owing to ongoing climate change is needed for proper public health planning and messaging. Two recent studies have evaluated these topics for D. variabilis; however, less-rigorous modeling approaches in those studies may have led to erroneous predictions. We evaluated the present and future distribution of this species using a correlative maximum entropy approach, using publicly available occurrence information. Future potential distributions were predicted under two representative concentration pathway (RCP) scenarios; RCP 4.5 for low-emissions and RCP 8.5 for high-emissions. Our results indicated a broader current distribution of this species in all directions relative to its currently known extent, and dramatic potential for westward and northward expansion of suitable areas under both climate change scenarios. Implications for disease ecology and public health are discussed.

Wing size and parity as markers of cohort demography for potential Anopheles (Culicidae: Diptera) malaria vectors in the Republic of Korea.

Wing lengths of parous (P) and nulliparous (NP) PCR-identified female Anopheles belenrae, An. kleini, An. pullus, and An. sinensis were determined from weekly trap collections at Camp Humphreys (CH), Ganghwa Island (GH), and Warrior Base (WB), Republic of Korea (ROK) during Jun-Oct, 2009. Wing length was greatest at the beginning and end of the study period. Wing length of NPs tended to be less than that of Ps before the period of maximum greening (Jul-Aug) but greater thereafter. Larger specimens tended to be Ps, and weekly wing length of Ps appeared less variable than NPs, possibly due to selection. A bimodal wing length frequency distribution of An. sinensis suggested two forms comprising small- (≤4.5 mm, SW) and large-winged females (>4.5 mm, LW). LW comprised the majority of peaks in abundance, however %SW, while still a minority, often increased during these times suggesting a density-dependent effect. At WB and GH, a two to three-week periodicity in %SW was obvious for An. sinensis and An. kleini. Analyses of weather station and satellite data showed that smaller-winged An. sinensis were associated with warmer, more humid, and greener times of the year. SW and LW specimens possibly result from agricultural practices that are common across large areas; regular synchronous peaks of SW and LW were observed from different sites. Peaks in SW Ps followed peaks in NPs in a 'ripple effect' one to two weeks apart, suggesting that wing length combined with parity could be used to follow the emergence and survival of mosquito cohorts.

Importance of the "what," "when," and "where" of mosquito collection events.

There is increasing need to apply established standards for recording data on mosquito collection events, because of the diversity of potential data providers, and the growth and interoperability of online databases designed to host these collection records. In particular, adequate taxonomic and georeference data are needed for geodatabases such as Mosquitomap (http://www. mosquitomap.org/) that map and compare these collection points with other spatial information in a geographical information system (GIS) setting. Accurately georeferenced collection data are crucial for understanding mosquito biogeography, ecology, and the impact of environmental changes, as well as for species distribution modeling, planning mosquito surveys, and for determining disease risk. We sampled representative published reports of new mosquito species records from 1980 in North America to the present to ascertain the quality of georeference information. Our results show that authors have increased the frequency of reporting georeferences but that they vary in the precision of the georeference, and some information, such as the source, date, and datum of the georeference, are usually not given. We discuss recently established standards for recording collection events, some relevant online resources available to researchers to assist them in their georeferencing, and the data input schema developed for the Mosquitomap database. We propose that the mosquito research community adopt data standards for recording and reporting the results of mosquito collection events to increase the value of these data. In particular, we recommend authors lodge voucher specimens and use a GPS set to the WGS84 datum.

Geographic distribution and ecology of potential malaria vectors in the Republic of Korea.

Environmental geospatial data and adult and larval mosquito collection data for up to 106 sites throughout the Republic of Korea (ROK) were used to develop ecological niche models (ENMs) of the potential geographic distribution for eight anopheline species known to occur there. The areas predicted suitable for the Hyrcanus Group species were the most extensive for Anopheles sinensis Wiedemann, An. kleini Rueda, An. belenrae Rueda, and An. pullus Yamada, intermediate for An. sineroides Yamada, and the most restricted for An. lesteri Baisas and Hu and the non-Hyrcanus Group species An. koreicus Yamada and Watanabe and An. lindesayi Yamada. The relative vectorial importance of these species is unknown, and all, except An. koreicus and An. lindesayi, are predicted to occur widely in the northwest of the ROK where malaria transmission has been sporadic since its resurgence in 1993. Our ENMs suggest that it is unlikely that An. koreicus and An. lindesayi are vectors, but we do not document consistent geographic differentiation that might incriminate any of the other species as vectors. Because all species are predicted to occur in North Korea, we also cannot reject the hypothesis that malaria infected mosquitoes from North Korea may have been the cause of the resurgence of malaria in the ROK. Ecological differentiation of the eight species is inferred from collection locations and 34 environmental layers based on remote sensing and global climatic averages. Interspecific differences were noted, and characterizing mosquito habitats by ground-based and remote sensing methods is proposed.

Potential distribution of two species in the medically important Anopheles minimus complex (Diptera: Culicidae).

Anopheles minimus Theobald (=An. minimus A) and possibly Anopheles harrisoni Harbach & Manguin (=An. minimus C) are important malaria vector species in the Minimus Complex in Southeast Asia. The distributions of these species are poorly known, although detailed information could benefit malaria vector incrimination and control. We used published collection records of these species and environmental geospatial data to construct consensus ecological niche models (ENM) of each species' potential geographic distribution. The status of the Indian taxon An. fluviatilis S as a species distinct from An. harrisoni has been debated in the literature, so we tested for differentiation in ecological niche characteristics. The predicted potential distribution of An. minimus is more southerly than that of An. harrisoni: Southeast Asia is predicted to be more suitable for An. minimus, and China and India are predicted more suitable for An. harrisoni, so An. harrisoni seems to dominate under cooler conditions. The distribution of An. minimus is more continuous than that of An. harrisoni: disjunction in the potential distribution of the latter is suggested between India and Southeast Asia Anopheles fluviatilis S occurrences are predicted within the An. harrisoni ecological potential, so we do not document ecological differentiation that might reject conspecificity. Overall, model predictions offer a synthetic view of the distribution of this species complex across the landscapes of southern and eastern Asia.

An Excel Spreadsheet Tool for Exploring the Seasonality of Aedes Vector Hazard for User-Specified Administrative Regions of Brazil.

Aedes-vectored viruses are a major concern for active-duty military personnel working in South and Central America at certain times of the year. Knowledge about the seasonal changes of vector activity is important as it informs time-sensitive vector control, prophylaxis, and travel decisions. To assist in-country and extralimital efforts to anticipate when vector hazards and the risks of transmission are highest, we developed an Excel spreadsheet tool that uses published monthly habitat suitability models to display various aspects of average Aedes seasonality for user-defined second order administrative areas of Brazil. This tool expands on those previously developed by the authors for the contiguous United States, with the aim of translating global habitat suitability models into user-friendly formats to provide actionable intelligence for areas of interest.

Mosquito Surveillance Conducted by US Military Personnel in the Aftermath of the Nuclear Explosion at Nagasaki, Japan, 1945.

Mosquito surveillance data can be used to develop bionomic profiles of vector species to inform abatement plans. Thus, surveillance was conducted in the months following Allied occupation of Japan at the conclusion of World War II. Mosquito surveillance in Nagasaki, Japan, began one month after the nuclear bomb destroyed much of the city. The resulting specimens housed within the US National mosquito collection are documented here for the first time. Specimen labels were digitized and specimens were photographed to record specimen condition as part of the process for making them readily available to researchers.

Insight into global mosquito biogeography from country species records.

To advance our limited knowledge of global mosquito biogeography, we analyzed country occurrence records from the Systematic Catalog of the Culicidae (http://www.mosquitocatalog. org/main.asp), and we present world maps of species richness and endemism. A latitudinal biodiversity gradient was observed, with species richness increasing toward the equator. A linear log-log species (y)-area (x) relationship (SAR) was found that we used to compare observed and expected species densities for each country. Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand had the highest numbers of species, and Brazil also had the highest taxonomic output and number of type locations. Brazil, Australia, the Philippines, and Indonesia had the highest numbers of endemic species, but excluding small island countries, Panama, French Guiana, Malaysia, and Costa Rica had the highest densities of total species and endemic species. Globally, 50% of mosquito species are endemic. Island countries had higher total number of species and higher number of endemic species than mainland countries of similar size, but the slope of the SAR was similar for island and mainland countries. Islands also had higher numbers of publications and type locations, possibly due to greater sampling effort and/or species endemism on islands. The taxonomic output was lowest for some countries in Africa and the Middle East. A consideration of country estimates of past sampling effort and species richness and endemism is proposed to guide mosquito biodiversity surveys. For species groups, we show that the number of species of Anopheles subgenus Anopheles varies with those of subgenus Cellia in a consistent manner between countries depending on the region. This pattern is discussed in relation to hypotheses about the historical biogeography and ecology of this medically important genus. Spatial analysis of country species records offers new insight into global patterns of mosquito biodiversity and survey history.

A location-specific spreadsheet for estimating Zika risk and timing for Zika vector surveillance, using US military facilities as an example.

Local Zika virus transmission in the United States involving one or both of the known vector species, Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus, is of major concern. To assist efforts to anticipate the risks of transmission, we developed an Excel spreadsheet tool that uses vector and virus temperature thresholds, remotely sensed maximum temperature, and habitat suitability models to answer the questions: "is Zika transmission likely here?" and "when should we conduct vector surveillance?" An example spreadsheet, updated regularly and freely available, uses near real-time and forecast temperature data to generate guidance, based on a novel four level Zika risk code, for 733 US military facilities in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the territories of Guam and Puerto Rico.

Seasonal dynamics of Anopheles species at three locations in the Republic of Korea.

Weekly changes in adult Anopheles species were monitored at Camp Humphreys (CH), Ganghwa Island (GH), and Warrior Base (WB), from May-October, 2009-2010 to explore the relationship between Plasmodium vivax development and vector dynamics in the Republic of Korea (ROK). Adult females were trapped and dissected to determine parity for estimating longevity, mortality, and birthrate. A degree-day (DD) method was used to estimate the extrinsic incubation period (EIP) of P. vivax and duration of the gonotrophic cycle and other life stages. Anopheles sinensis was the predominant species, with satellite data showing peak abundance occurring after the period of maximum greenness. Abundance peaks were location dependent, comprised nulliparous and parous females, and timing could not be fully explained by DD estimation. Parity showed synchronicity between locations and years and was highest for September and lowest during maximum greenness. Mosquito longevity was predicted to exceed the EIP (when malaria transmission is possible) during weeks 29, 31, 34, and near the end of the season. Area-wide changes in parity suggest a common cause; information on local larval habitat and agricultural practices may explain location-specific effects. DD estimates of EIP and parity could be used to predict when conditions are suitable for P. vivax transmission.

Disturbance and mosquito diversity in the lowland tropical rainforest of central Panama.

The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH) is well-known in ecology providing an explanation for the role of disturbance in the coexistence of climax and colonist species. Here, we used the IDH as a framework to describe the role of forest disturbance in shaping the mosquito community structure, and to identify the ecological processes that increase the emergence of vector-borne disease. Mosquitoes were collected in central Panama at immature stages along linear transects in colonising, mixed and climax forest habitats, representing different levels of disturbance. Species were identified taxonomically and classified into functional categories (i.e., colonist, climax, disturbance-generalist, and rare). Using the Huisman-Olff-Fresco multi-model selection approach, IDH testing was done. We did not detect a unimodal relationship between species diversity and forest disturbance expected under the IDH; instead diversity peaked in old-growth forests. Habitat complexity and constraints are two mechanisms proposed to explain this alternative postulate. Moreover, colonist mosquito species were more likely to be involved in or capable of pathogen transmission than climax species. Vector species occurrence decreased notably in undisturbed forest settings. Old-growth forest conservation in tropical rainforests is therefore a highly-recommended solution for preventing new outbreaks of arboviral and parasitic diseases in anthropic environments.