Prenatal interleukin 6 elevation increases glutamatergic synapse density and disrupts hippocampal connectivity in offspring.

Early prenatal inflammatory conditions are thought to be a risk factor for different neurodevelopmental disorders. Maternal interleukin-6 (IL-6) elevation during pregnancy causes abnormal behavior in offspring, but whether these defects result from altered synaptic developmental trajectories remains unclear. Here we showed that transient IL-6 elevation via injection into pregnant mice or developing embryos enhanced glutamatergic synapses and led to overall brain hyperconnectivity in offspring into adulthood. IL-6 activated synaptogenesis gene programs in glutamatergic neurons and required the transcription factor STAT3 and expression of the RGS4 gene. The STAT3-RGS4 pathway was also activated in neonatal brains during poly(I:C)-induced maternal immune activation, which mimics viral infection during pregnancy. These findings indicate that IL-6 elevation at early developmental stages is sufficient to exert a long-lasting effect on glutamatergic synaptogenesis and brain connectivity, providing a mechanistic framework for the association between prenatal inflammatory events and brain neurodevelopmental disorders.

Pentraxin 3 regulates synaptic function by inducing AMPA receptor clustering via ECM remodeling and ß1-integrin.

Control of synapse number and function in the developing central nervous system is critical to the formation of neural circuits. Astrocytes play a key role in this process by releasing factors that promote the formation of excitatory synapses. Astrocyte-secreted thrombospondins (TSPs) induce the formation of structural synapses, which however remain post-synaptically silent, suggesting that completion of early synaptogenesis may require a two-step mechanism. Here, we show that the humoral innate immune molecule Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) is expressed in the developing rodent brain. PTX3 plays a key role in promoting functionally-active CNS synapses, by increasing the surface levels and synaptic clustering of AMPA glutamate receptors. This process involves tumor necrosis factor-induced protein 6 (TSG6), remodeling of the perineuronal network, and a ß1-integrin/ERK pathway. Furthermore, PTX3 activity is regulated by TSP1, which directly interacts with the N-terminal region of PTX3. These data unveil a fundamental role of PTX3 in promoting the first wave of synaptogenesis, and show that interplay of TSP1 and PTX3 sets the proper balance between synaptic growth and synapse function in the developing brain.

Eps8 controls dendritic spine density and synaptic plasticity through its actin-capping activity.

Actin-based remodelling underlies spine structural changes occurring during synaptic plasticity, the process that constantly reshapes the circuitry of the adult brain in response to external stimuli, leading to learning and memory formation. A positive correlation exists between spine shape and synaptic strength and, consistently, abnormalities in spine number and morphology have been described in a number of neurological disorders. In the present study, we demonstrate that the actin-regulating protein, Eps8, is recruited to the spine head during chemically induced long-term potentiation in culture and that inhibition of its actin-capping activity impairs spine enlargement and plasticity. Accordingly, mice lacking Eps8 display immature spines, which are unable to undergo potentiation, and are impaired in cognitive functions. Additionally, we found that reduction in the levels of Eps8 occurs in brains of patients affected by autism compared to controls. Our data reveal the key role of Eps8 actin-capping activity in spine morphogenesis and plasticity and indicate that reductions in actin-capping proteins may characterize forms of intellectual disabilities associated with spine defects.

Reduced SNAP-25 alters short-term plasticity at developing glutamatergic synapses.

SNAP-25 is a key component of the synaptic-vesicle fusion machinery, involved in several psychiatric diseases including schizophrenia and ADHD. SNAP-25 protein expression is lower in different brain areas of schizophrenic patients and in ADHD mouse models. How the reduced expression of SNAP-25 alters the properties of synaptic transmission, leading to a pathological phenotype, is unknown. We show that, unexpectedly, halved SNAP-25 levels at 13-14 DIV not only fail to impair synaptic transmission but instead enhance evoked glutamatergic neurotransmission. This effect is possibly dependent on presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channel activity and is not accompanied by changes in spontaneous quantal events or in the pool of readily releasable synaptic vesicles. Notably, synapses of 13-14 DIV neurons with reduced SNAP-25 expression show paired-pulse depression as opposed to paired-pulse facilitation occurring in their wild-type counterparts. This phenotype disappears with synapse maturation. As alterations in short-term plasticity represent a new mechanism contributing to cognitive impairments in intellectual disabilities, our data provide mechanistic clues for neuronal circuit alterations in psychiatric diseases characterized by reduced expression of SNAP-25.

Bimodal modulation of L1 interneuron activity in anterior cingulate cortex during fear conditioning.

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a crucial role in encoding, consolidating and retrieving memories related to emotionally salient experiences, such as aversive and rewarding events. Various studies have highlighted its importance for fear memory processing, but its circuit mechanisms are still poorly understood. Cortical layer 1 (L1) of the ACC might be a particularly important site of signal integration, since it is a major entry point for long-range inputs, which is tightly controlled by local inhibition. Many L1 interneurons express the ionotropic serotonin receptor 3a (5HT3aR), which has been implicated in post-traumatic stress disorder and in models of anxiety. Hence, unraveling the response dynamics of L1 interneurons and subtypes thereof during fear memory processing may provide important insights into the microcircuit organization regulating this process. Here, using 2-photon laser scanning microscopy of genetically encoded calcium indicators through microprisms in awake mice, we longitudinally monitored over days the activity of L1 interneurons in the ACC in a tone-cued fear conditioning paradigm. We observed that tones elicited responses in a substantial fraction of the imaged neurons, which were significantly modulated in a bidirectional manner after the tone was associated to an aversive stimulus. A subpopulation of these neurons, the neurogliaform cells (NGCs), displayed a net increase in tone-evoked responses following fear conditioning. Together, these results suggest that different subpopulations of L1 interneurons may exert distinct functions in the ACC circuitry regulating fear learning and memory.

From filopodia to synapses: the role of actin-capping and anti-capping proteins.

Actin-capping and anti-capping proteins are crucial regulators of actin dynamics. Recent studies have indicated that these proteins may be heavily involved in all stages of synaptogenesis, from the emergence of filopodia, through neuritogenesis and synaptic contact stabilization, to the structural changes occurring at the synapse during potentiation phenomena. In this review, we focus on recent evidence pointing to an active role of actin-capping and anti-capping proteins in orchestrating the processes controlling neuronal connectivity and plasticity.

Astrocytic Factors Controlling Synaptogenesis: A Team Play.

Astrocytes are essential players in brain circuit development and homeostasis, controlling many aspects of synapse formation, function, plasticity and elimination both during development and adulthood. Accordingly, alterations in astrocyte morphogenesis and physiology may severely affect proper brain development, causing neurological or neuropsychiatric conditions. Recent findings revealed a huge astrocyte heterogeneity among different brain areas, which is likely at the foundation of the different synaptogenic potential of these cells in selected brain regions. This review highlights recent findings on novel mechanisms that regulate astrocyte-mediated synaptogenesis during development, and the control of synapse number in the critical period or upon synaptic plasticity.

SNAP-25, a Known Presynaptic Protein with Emerging Postsynaptic Functions.

A hallmark of synaptic specializations is their dependence on highly organized complexes of proteins that interact with each other. The loss or modification of key synaptic proteins directly affects the properties of such networks, ultimately impacting synaptic function. SNAP-25 is a component of the SNARE complex, which is central to synaptic vesicle exocytosis, and, by directly interacting with different calcium channels subunits, it negatively modulates neuronal voltage-gated calcium channels, thus regulating intracellular calcium dynamics. The SNAP-25 gene has been associated with distinct brain diseases, including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, indicating that the protein may act as a shared biological substrate among different "synaptopathies". The mechanisms by which alterations in SNAP-25 may concur to these psychiatric diseases are still undefined, although alterations in neurotransmitter release have been indicated as potential causative processes. This review summarizes recent work showing that SNAP-25 not only controls exo/endocytic processes at the presynaptic terminal, but also regulates postsynaptic receptor trafficking, spine morphogenesis, and plasticity, thus opening the possibility that SNAP-25 defects may contribute to psychiatric diseases by impacting not only presynaptic but also postsynaptic functions.