Microglia maintain structural integrity during fetal brain morphogenesis.

Microglia (MG), the brain-resident macrophages, play major roles in health and disease via a diversity of cellular states. While embryonic MG display a large heterogeneity of cellular distribution and transcriptomic states, their functions remain poorly characterized. Here, we uncovered a role for MG in the maintenance of structural integrity at two fetal cortical boundaries. At these boundaries between structures that grow in distinct directions, embryonic MG accumulate, display a state resembling post-natal axon-tract-associated microglia (ATM) and prevent the progression of microcavities into large cavitary lesions, in part via a mechanism involving the ATM-factor Spp1. MG and Spp1 furthermore contribute to the rapid repair of lesions, collectively highlighting protective functions that preserve the fetal brain from physiological morphogenetic stress and injury. Our study thus highlights key major roles for embryonic MG and Spp1 in maintaining structural integrity during morphogenesis, with major implications for our understanding of MG functions and brain development.

Recessive PRDM13 mutations cause fatal perinatal brainstem dysfunction with cerebellar hypoplasia and disrupt Purkinje cell differentiation.

Pontocerebellar hypoplasias (PCHs) are congenital disorders characterized by hypoplasia or early atrophy of the cerebellum and brainstem, leading to a very limited motor and cognitive development. Although over 20 genes have been shown to be mutated in PCHs, a large proportion of affected individuals remains undiagnosed. We describe four families with children presenting with severe neonatal brainstem dysfunction and pronounced deficits in cognitive and motor development associated with four different bi-allelic mutations in PRDM13, including homozygous truncating variants in the most severely affected individuals. Brain MRI and fetopathological examination revealed a PCH-like phenotype, associated with major hypoplasia of inferior olive nuclei and dysplasia of the dentate nucleus. Notably, histopathological examinations highlighted a sparse and disorganized Purkinje cell layer in the cerebellum. PRDM13 encodes a transcriptional repressor known to be critical for neuronal subtypes specification in the mouse retina and spinal cord but had not been implicated, so far, in hindbrain development. snRNA-seq data mining and in situ hybridization in humans show that PRDM13 is expressed at early stages in the progenitors of the cerebellar ventricular zone, which gives rise to cerebellar GABAergic neurons, including Purkinje cells. We also show that loss of function of prdm13 in zebrafish leads to a reduction in Purkinje cells numbers and a complete absence of the inferior olive nuclei. Altogether our data identified bi-allelic mutations in PRDM13 as causing a olivopontocerebellar hypoplasia syndrome and suggest that early deregulations of the transcriptional control of neuronal fate specification could contribute to a significant number of cases.

A recurrent de novo splice site variant involving DNM1 exon 10a causes developmental and epileptic encephalopathy through a dominant-negative mechanism.

Heterozygous pathogenic variants in DNM1 cause developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE) as a result of a dominant-negative mechanism impeding vesicular fission. Thus far, pathogenic variants in DNM1 have been studied with a canonical transcript that includes the alternatively spliced exon 10b. However, after performing RNA sequencing in 39 pediatric brain samples, we find the primary transcript expressed in the brain includes the downstream exon 10a instead. Using this information, we evaluated genotype-phenotype correlations of variants affecting exon 10a and identified a cohort of eleven previously unreported individuals. Eight individuals harbor a recurrent de novo splice site variant, c.1197-8G>A (GenBank: NM_001288739.1), which affects exon 10a and leads to DEE consistent with the classical DNM1 phenotype. We find this splice site variant leads to disease through an unexpected dominant-negative mechanism. Functional testing reveals an in-frame upstream splice acceptor causing insertion of two amino acids predicted to impair oligomerization-dependent activity. This is supported by neuropathological samples showing accumulation of enlarged synaptic vesicles adherent to the plasma membrane consistent with impaired vesicular fission. Two additional individuals with missense variants affecting exon 10a, p.Arg399Trp and p.Gly401Asp, had a similar DEE phenotype. In contrast, one individual with a missense variant affecting exon 10b, p.Pro405Leu, which is less expressed in the brain, had a correspondingly less severe presentation. Thus, we implicate variants affecting exon 10a as causing the severe DEE typically associated with DNM1-related disorders. We highlight the importance of considering relevant isoforms for disease-causing variants as well as the possibility of splice site variants acting through a dominant-negative mechanism.

Disruption of NEUROD2 causes a neurodevelopmental syndrome with autistic features via cell-autonomous defects in forebrain glutamatergic neurons.

While the transcription factor NEUROD2 has recently been associated with epilepsy, its precise role during nervous system development remains unclear. Using a multi-scale approach, we set out to understand how Neurod2 deletion affects the development of the cerebral cortex in mice. In Neurod2 KO embryos, cortical projection neurons over-migrated, thereby altering the final size and position of layers. In juvenile and adults, spine density and turnover were dysregulated in apical but not basal compartments in layer 5 neurons. Patch-clamp recordings in layer 5 neurons of juvenile mice revealed increased intrinsic excitability. Bulk RNA sequencing showed dysregulated expression of many genes associated with neuronal excitability and synaptic function, whose human orthologs were strongly associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). At the behavior level, Neurod2 KO mice displayed social interaction deficits, stereotypies, hyperactivity, and occasionally spontaneous seizures. Mice heterozygous for Neurod2 had similar defects, indicating that Neurod2 is haploinsufficient. Finally, specific deletion of Neurod2 in forebrain excitatory neurons recapitulated cellular and behavioral phenotypes found in constitutive KO mice, revealing the region-specific contribution of dysfunctional Neurod2 in symptoms. Informed by these neurobehavioral features in mouse mutants, we identified eleven patients from eight families with a neurodevelopmental disorder including intellectual disability and ASD associated with NEUROD2 pathogenic mutations. Our findings demonstrate crucial roles for Neurod2 in neocortical development, whose alterations can cause neurodevelopmental disorders including intellectual disability and ASD.

COL4A1/COL4A2 and inherited platelet disorder gene variants in fetuses showing intracranial hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Variants of COL4A1/COL4A2 genes have been reported in fetal intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) cases but their prevalence and characteristics have not been established in a large series of fetuses. Fetal neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia is a major acquired ICH factor but the prevalence and characteristics of inherited platelet disorder (IPD) gene variants leading to thrombocytopenia are unknown. Herein, we screened COL4A1/COL4A2 and IPD genes in a large series of ICH fetuses. METHODS: A cohort of 194 consecutive ICH fetuses were first screened for COL4A1/COL4A2 variants. We manually curated a list of 64 genes involved in IPD and investigated them in COL4A1/COL4A2 negative fetuses, using exome sequencing data from 101 of these fetuses. RESULT: Pathogenic variants of COL4A1/COL4A2 genes were identified in 36 fetuses (19%). They occurred de novo in 70% of the 32 fetuses for whom parental DNA was available. Pathogenic variants in two megakaryopoiesis genes (MPL and MECOM genes) were identified in two families with recurrent and severe fetal ICH, with variable extraneurological pathological features. CONCLUSION: Our study emphasizes the genetic heterogeneity of fetal ICH and the need to screen both COL4A1/COL4A2 and IPD genes in the etiological investigation of fetal ICH to allow proper genetic counseling.

Somatic double-hit in MTOR and RPS6 in hemimegalencephaly with intractable epilepsy.

Single germline or somatic activating mutations of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway genes are emerging as a major cause of type II focal cortical dysplasia (FCD), hemimegalencephaly (HME) and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). A double-hit mechanism, based on a primary germline mutation in one allele and a secondary somatic hit affecting the other allele of the same gene in a small number of cells, has been documented in some patients with TSC or FCD. In a patient with HME, severe intellectual disability, intractable seizures and hypochromic skin patches, we identified the ribosomal protein S6 (RPS6) p.R232H variant, present as somatic mosaicism at ~15.1% in dysplastic brain tissue and ~11% in blood, and the MTOR p.S2215F variant, detected as ~8.8% mosaicism in brain tissue, but not in blood. Overexpressing the two variants independently in animal models, we demonstrated that MTOR p.S2215F caused neuronal migration delay and cytomegaly, while RPS6 p.R232H prompted increased cell proliferation. Double mutants exhibited a more severe phenotype, with increased proliferation and migration defects at embryonic stage and, at postnatal stage, cytomegalic cells exhibiting eccentric nuclei and binucleation, which are typical features of balloon cells. These findings suggest a synergistic effect of the two variants. This study indicates that, in addition to single activating mutations and double-hit inactivating mutations in mTOR pathway genes, severe forms of cortical dysplasia can also result from activating mutations affecting different genes in this pathway. RPS6 is a potential novel disease-related gene.

Homozygous GRN mutations: new phenotypes and new insights into pathological and molecular mechanisms.

Homozygous mutations in the progranulin gene (GRN) are associated with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis 11 (CLN11), a rare lysosomal-storage disorder characterized by cerebellar ataxia, seizures, retinitis pigmentosa, and cognitive disorders, usually beginning between 13 and 25 years of age. This is a rare condition, previously reported in only four families. In contrast, heterozygous GRN mutations are a major cause of frontotemporal dementia associated with neuronal cytoplasmic TDP-43 inclusions. We identified homozygous GRN mutations in six new patients. The phenotypic spectrum is much broader than previously reported, with two remarkably distinct presentations, depending on the age of onset. A childhood/juvenile form is characterized by classical CLN11 symptoms at an early age at onset. Unexpectedly, other homozygous patients presented a distinct delayed phenotype of frontotemporal dementia and parkinsonism after 50 years; none had epilepsy or cerebellar ataxia. Another major finding of this study is that all GRN mutations may not have the same impact on progranulin protein synthesis. A hypomorphic effect of some mutations is supported by the presence of residual levels of plasma progranulin and low levels of normal transcript detected in one case with a homozygous splice-site mutation and late onset frontotemporal dementia. This is a new critical finding that must be considered in therapeutic trials based on replacement strategies. The first neuropathological study in a homozygous carrier provides new insights into the pathological mechanisms of the disease. Hallmarks of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis were present. The absence of TDP-43 cytoplasmic inclusions markedly differs from observations of heterozygous mutations, suggesting a pathological shift between lysosomal and TDP-43 pathologies depending on the mono or bi-allelic status. An intriguing observation was the loss of normal TDP-43 staining in the nucleus of some neurons, which could be the first stage of the TDP-43 pathological process preceding the formation of typical cytoplasmic inclusions. Finally, this study has important implications for genetic counselling and molecular diagnosis. Semi-dominant inheritance of GRN mutations implies that specific genetic counselling should be delivered to children and parents of CLN11 patients, as they are heterozygous carriers with a high risk of developing dementia. More broadly, this study illustrates the fact that genetic variants can lead to different phenotypes according to their mono- or bi-allelic state, which is a challenge for genetic diagnosis.

Mitochondrial dysfunction caused by novel ATAD3A mutations.

Mitochondrial respiratory chain integrity depends on a number of proteins encoded by nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. Mutations of such factors can result in isolated or combined respiratory chain deficits, some of which can induce abnormal morphology of the mitochondrial network or accumulation of intermediary metabolites. Consequently, affected patients are clinically heterogeneous, presenting with central nervous system, muscular, or neurodegenerative disorders. ATAD3A is a nuclear-encoded ATPase protein of the AAA+ family and has been localized to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Recently reported mutations or large deletions in the ATDA3A gene in patients have been shown to induce altered mitochondrial structure and function and abnormal cholesterol metabolism in a recessive or dominant manner. Here, we report two siblings presenting axonal sensory-motor neuropathy associated with neonatal cataract. Genetic analyses identified two novel mutations in ATAD3A; a point mutation and an intronic 15 bp deletion affecting splicing and leading to exon skipping. Biochemical analysis in patient cells and tissues showed abnormal function of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in muscle and abnormal mitochondrial cristae structure. These new cases underline the large spectrum of biochemical and clinical presentations of ATAD3A deficiency and the different modes of inheritance, making it an atypical mitochondrial disorder.

Paediatric-onset neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis: first symptoms and presentation at diagnosis.

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are rare, progressive disorders. Through this series of 20 patients with NCL, we illustrate differences between subtypes in their presenting symptoms and clinical, imaging, and electrophysiological results to raise awareness of symptom diversity. Data were available on presenting symptoms, genetics, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electroencephalography (including with low-frequency intermittent photic stimulation), visual responses, and electron microscopy. Causal mutations were identified in 10 patients. Eleven patients had neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis type 2 (CLN2) disease and their most common presenting symptom was seizures, although motor and language defects were also reported. Five patients with CLN2 disease showed abnormalities at initial MRI, but only three showed a photic response with low-frequency stimulation. Seizures were not as common a presenting symptom in other NCL subtypes. Patients with NCLs present with diverse symptoms, which may not be characteristic in early disease stages. These signs and symptoms should lead to rapid diagnostic confirmatory testing for NCLs. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Disease presentation is not uniform for neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses. Characteristic clinical test results may not be identified in early disease stages.

WDR81 mutations cause extreme microcephaly and impair mitotic progression in human fibroblasts and Drosophila neural stem cells.

Microlissencephaly is a rare brain malformation characterized by congenital microcephaly and lissencephaly. Microlissencephaly is suspected to result from abnormalities in the proliferation or survival of neural progenitors. Despite the recent identification of six genes involved in microlissencephaly, the pathophysiological basis of this condition remains poorly understood. We performed trio-based whole exome sequencing in seven subjects from five non-consanguineous families who presented with either microcephaly or microlissencephaly. This led to the identification of compound heterozygous mutations in WDR81, a gene previously associated with cerebellar ataxia, intellectual disability and quadrupedal locomotion. Patient phenotypes ranged from severe microcephaly with extremely reduced gyration with pontocerebellar hypoplasia to moderate microcephaly with cerebellar atrophy. In patient fibroblast cells, WDR81 mutations were associated with increased mitotic index and delayed prometaphase/metaphase transition. Similarly, in vivo, we showed that knockdown of the WDR81 orthologue in Drosophila led to increased mitotic index of neural stem cells with delayed mitotic progression. In summary, we highlight the broad phenotypic spectrum of WDR81-related brain malformations, which include microcephaly with moderate to extremely reduced gyration and cerebellar anomalies. Our results suggest that WDR81 might have a role in mitosis that is conserved between Drosophila and humans.

Variability of T1-weighted signal intensity of pericallosal lipomas in the fetus.

BACKGROUND: Pericallosal lipomas are often associated with corpus callosum dysgenesis. The diagnosis of lipoma, suggested on ultrasonography, relies on the classic T1 hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, this feature may be absent prenatally. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to study the changes of T1 intensity in fetal lipomas with comparison to postnatal/postmortem data and to assess the factors influencing the signal variations of pericallosal lipomas on prenatal MRI. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with callosum dysgenesis and interhemispheric hyperechogenicity suggestive of a pericallosal lipoma with available postnatal or postmortem data were included. Gestational age, lipoma size and pattern, corpus callosum size and changes in fetal fat T1 intensity were recorded. Comparison with postmortem neuropathology was available for one fetus. RESULTS: Eleven patients with callosum dysgenesis and pericallosal lipomas (seven curvilinear and four tubulonodular) were included. All MRI scans were performed in the third trimester. Curvilinear lipomas were thinner and six cases were associated with prenatal T1 iso-intensity. Typical T1 hyperintensity appeared on postnatal MRI only. All tubulonodular lipomas were much larger and showed prenatal T1 hyperintensity. In two patients, the lipoma increased in size on postnatal MRI. CONCLUSION: The type and size of a lipoma influence T1 prenatal intensity. Absence of T1 intensity was observed in curvilinear lipomas only. Curvilinear lipomas are much thinner. Changes in T1 intensity may also be related to fat maturation within the lipoma and, subsequently, to gestational age. In the case of callosum dysgenesis, absence of prenatal T1 pericallosal hyperintensity should not exclude the diagnosis of pericallosal lipoma.

Developmental patterns of fetal fat and corresponding signal on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging.

BACKGROUND: Evaluation of subcutaneous fetal fat layer thickness on T1-weighted sequences can be used to predict birth weight. Little is known about normal MR signal patterns of subcutaneous tissue throughout pregnancy. OBJECTIVE: To establish developmental patterns of subcutaneous fetal fat signal on T1-weighted sequences during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively examined T1-weighted images of 110 fetal MRI scans. We measured signal intensity of subcutaneous fat on thighs, buttocks, trunk, nuchal region, chin and scalp. We then calculated the ratios of the obtained values with fetal muscle, amnios and maternal fat signal, and compared the results with those of immunohistochemical examination of adipose tissue extracted from the abdominal wall of fetuses as part of standard autopsy protocol. RESULTS: We included 60 MRI scans in fetuses without intra-uterine growth restriction or macrosomia of non-diabetic mothers (range 23-37 weeks of gestation). Fat T1 intensity of all anatomical regions was low in all fetuses before 26 weeks of gestation. It became more hyperintense with increasing gestational age, in the following order: chin and nuchal region, then buttocks, thighs and trunk, and eventually the scalp at 33 weeks of gestation. After 33 weeks of gestation, all fetal subcutaneous tissues demonstrated overall hyperintense signal. This progression followed the conversion at immunohistochemistry of fetal adipose tissue composition from predominant brown to white adipose cells in 19 fetuses (19-41 weeks of gestation). CONCLUSION: Between 26 weeks and 33 weeks of gestation, subcutaneous fetal fat signal changed in an orderly pattern from chin to buttocks and scalp. This may reflect the conversion from predominant brown to white adipose tissues in subcutaneous fetal fat.

Corpus Callosum Abnormalities and Short Femurs in Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome: A Report of Two Fetal Cases.

INTRODUCTION: Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) is the most common overgrowth syndrome. Clinical features are highly variable, including occasional posterior fossa malformations but no femoral shortening. CASE REPORT: We report two fetuses with BWS associated with short femurs and corpus callosum hypoplasia. Case 2 was growth restricted. BWS was confirmed by molecular studies showing a loss of methylation at ICR2 at 11p15 chromosomic region in case 1 and a gain of methylation at ICR1 and a loss of methylation at ICR2 locus in case 2. CONCLUSION: Although the phenotype and the genotype of BWS is now well-known, the presence of corpus callosum abnormalities and short femurs expand the phenotypic spectrum of the disorder.

Mutations in CNTNAP1 and ADCY6 are responsible for severe arthrogryposis multiplex congenita with axoglial defects.

Non-syndromic arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC) is characterized by multiple congenital contractures resulting from reduced fetal mobility. Genetic mapping and whole exome sequencing (WES) were performed in 31 multiplex and/or consanguineous undiagnosed AMC families. Although this approach identified known AMC genes, we here report pathogenic mutations in two new genes. Homozygous frameshift mutations in CNTNAP1 were found in four unrelated families. Patients showed a marked reduction in motor nerve conduction velocity (<10 m/s) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of sciatic nerve in the index cases revealed severe abnormalities of both nodes of Ranvier width and myelinated axons. CNTNAP1 encodes CASPR, an essential component of node of Ranvier domains which underlies saltatory conduction of action potentials along the myelinated axons, an important process for neuronal function. A homozygous missense mutation in adenylate cyclase 6 gene (ADCY6) was found in another family characterized by a lack of myelin in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) as determined by TEM. Morpholino knockdown of the zebrafish orthologs led to severe and specific defects in peripheral myelin in spite of the presence of Schwann cells. ADCY6 encodes a protein that belongs to the adenylate cyclase family responsible for the synthesis of cAMP. Elevation of cAMP can mimic axonal contact in vitro and upregulates myelinating signals. Our data indicate an essential and so far unknown role of ADCY6 in PNS myelination likely through the cAMP pathway. Mutations of genes encoding proteins of Ranvier domains or involved in myelination of Schwann cells are responsible for novel and severe human axoglial diseases.

Association of periventricular nodular heterotopia with posterior fossa cyst: a prenatal case series.

OBJECTIVE: The association of periventricular nodular heterotopia (PVNH) with posterior fossa cyst (PFC) is documented after birth. We report this association in a series of fetuses. METHODS: Eleven cases (7 females) of PVNH and PFC diagnosed at prenatal imaging were collected in this retrospective multicenter study. The patients were referred to tertiary centers for targeted ultrasonography (US) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) following detection of PFC on routine US. Mutations of the filamin A gene (FLNA) were searched for (n = 6). Maternal brain MRI was performed (n = 8). Post-mortem or postnatal data were recorded. RESULTS: Targeted US was performed at a mean gestational age of 29 (range; 23-35) weeks and identified PVNH in 4 cases. At MRI, performed at a mean gestational age of 31 (range; 29-35) weeks, PVNH and PFC were visible in all cases. Those findings were confirmed by postnatal MRI (n = 3), autopsy (n = 7) and/or post-mortem MRI (n = 2) or US (n = 1). Maternal brain MRI showed PVNH in one case. A de novo FLNA mutation was found in four cases. CONCLUSION: We describe a series of PVNH and PFC in fetuses, which underlines the importance of searching for PVNH when PFC is identified at prenatal US. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A glial origin for periventricular nodular heterotopia caused by impaired expression of Filamin-A.

Periventricular nodular heterotopia (PH) is a human brain malformation caused by defective neuronal migration that results in ectopic neuronal nodules lining the lateral ventricles beneath a normal appearing cortex. Most affected patients have seizures and their cognitive level varies from normal to severely impaired. Mutations in the Filamin-A (or FLNA) gene are the main cause of PH, but the underlying pathological mechanism remains unknown. Although two FlnA knockout mouse strains have been generated, none of them showed the presence of ectopic nodules. To recapitulate the loss of FlnA function in the developing rat brain, we used an in utero RNA interference-mediated knockdown approach and successfully reproduced a PH phenotype in rats comparable with that observed in human patients. In FlnA-knockdown rats, we report that PH results from a disruption of the polarized radial glial scaffold in the ventricular zone altering progression of neural progenitors through the cell cycle and impairing migration of neurons into the cortical plate. Similar alterations of radial glia are observed in human PH brains of a 35-week fetus and a 3-month-old child, harboring distinct FLNA mutations not previously reported. Finally, juvenile FlnA-knockdown rats are highly susceptible to seizures, confirming the reliability of this novel animal model of PH. Our findings suggest that the disorganization of radial glia is the leading cause of PH pathogenesis associated with FLNA mutations. Rattus norvegicus FlnA mRNA (GenBank accession number FJ416060).

In mice and humans, brain microvascular contractility matures postnatally.

Although great efforts to characterize the embryonic phase of brain microvascular system development have been made, its postnatal maturation has barely been described. Here, we compared the molecular and functional properties of brain vascular cells on postnatal day (P)5 vs. P15, via a transcriptomic analysis of purified mouse cortical microvessels (MVs) and the identification of vascular-cell-type-specific or -preferentially expressed transcripts. We found that endothelial cells (EC), vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and fibroblasts (FB) follow specific molecular maturation programs over this time period. Focusing on VSMCs, we showed that the arteriolar VSMC network expands and becomes contractile resulting in a greater cerebral blood flow (CBF), with heterogenous developmental trajectories within cortical regions. Samples of the human brain cortex showed the same postnatal maturation process. Thus, the postnatal phase is a critical period during which arteriolar VSMC contractility required for vessel tone and brain perfusion is acquired and mature.