Termite Fungus Comb Polysaccharides Alleviate Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia in Type 2 Diabetic Mice by Regulating Hepatic Glucose/Lipid Metabolism and the Gut Microbiota.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia. The termite fungus comb is an integral component of nests of termites, which are a global pest. Termite fungus comb polysaccharides (TFCPs) have been identified to possess antioxidant, anti-aging, and immune-enhancing properties. However, their physicochemical characteristics and their role in fighting diabetes have not been previously reported. In the current study, TFCPs were isolated and structurally characterized. The yield of TFCPs was determined to be 2.76%, and it was found to be composed of a diverse array of polysaccharides with varying molecular weights. The hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of TFCPs, as well as their potential mechanisms of action, were investigated in a T2D mouse model. The results demonstrated that oral administration of TFCPs could alleviate fasting blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and the dysfunction of pancreatic islets in T2D mice. In terms of mechanisms, the TFCPs enhanced hepatic glycogenesis and glycolysis while inhibiting gluconeogenesis. Additionally, the TFCPs suppressed hepatic de novo lipogenesis and promoted fatty acid oxidation. Furthermore, the TFCPs altered the composition of the gut microbiota in the T2D mice, increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Allobaculum and Faecalibaculum, while reducing the levels of pathogens like Mailhella and Acetatifactor. Overall, these findings suggest that TFCPs may exert anti-diabetic effects by regulating hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism and the composition of the gut microbiota. These findings suggest that TFCPs can be used as a promising functional ingredient for the prevention and treatment of T2D.

Weighted gene co-expression network analysis reveals potential genes involved in early metamorphosis process in sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus.

Sea cucumbers, one main class of Echinoderms, have a very fast and drastic metamorphosis process during their development. However, the molecular basis under this process remains largely unknown. Here we systematically examined the gene expression profiles of Japanese common sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) for the first time by RNA sequencing across 16 developmental time points from fertilized egg to juvenile stage. Based on the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), we identified 21 modules. Among them, MEdarkmagenta was highly expressed and correlated with the early metamorphosis process from late auricularia to doliolaria larva. Furthermore, gene enrichment and differentially expressed gene analysis identified several genes in the module that may play key roles in the metamorphosis process. Our results not only provide a molecular basis for experimentally studying the development and morphological complexity of sea cucumber, but also lay a foundation for improving its emergence rate.

Ooceraeahainingensis sp. nov.: A new Chinese Ooceraea (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Dorylinae) species with a dealate queen, closely allied to the queenless clonal raider ant O.biroi.

The clonal raider ant, Ooceraeabiroi, is a queenless species that reproduces asexually, and these traits make it an attractive model system for laboratory research. However, it is unclear where on the ant phylogeny these traits evolved, partly because few closely related species have been described and studied. Here, we describe a new raider ant species, Ooceraeahainingensis sp. nov., from Zhejiang, China. This species is closely related to O.biroi but can be distinguished by the following features: 1) workers of O.hainingensis sp. nov. have an obvious promesonotal suture and a metanotal groove, whereas these characters are ambiguous in O.biroi; and 2) the subpetiolar process of O.hainingensis is prominent and anteroventrally directed like a thumb with sublinear posteroventral margin, while in O.biroi, it is anteroventrally directed but slightly backward-bent. Molecular phylogenetic analyses confirm that O.hainingensis is genetically distinct from O.biroi. Importantly, unlike O.biroi, O.hainingensis has a queen caste with wings and well-developed eyes. This suggests that the loss of the queen caste and transition to asexual reproduction by workers is specific to O.biroi and occurred after that species diverged from closely related congeneric species.

Validation of Potential Reference Genes for Real-Time qPCR Analysis in Pharaoh Ant, Monomorium pharaonis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Ants are highly diverse social insects living in colonies consisted of up to millions of individuals with reproductive division of labors. Due to the interests in disclosing the genetic and epigenetic regulation mechanisms underlying the distinct developmental trajectories between castes and division of labor in colonies, many ant species have recently been established as laboratory models for evolutionary development and social behavior studies. These functional studies often request a precise quantification of the relative gene expression level, which relies on a stably expressed reference genes for normalization. A core set of reliable reference genes for this purpose however has not been established yet in ants. In the present study, we tested the expression patterns and amplification efficiencies of 12 abundantly expressed candidate genes in Monomorium pharaonis, one of the few ant species that are suitable for laboratory rearing and experimentation. We quantified the expression levels of these genes by RT-qPCR in seven different conditions: embryo development, sexual development, worker development, adult phenotypes, tissues, and two abiotic manipulative treatments in pharaoh ant. Finally, five genes, elongation factor-1 alpha (EF1A), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), TATA-box-binding protein (TATA), tubulin gamma-2 chain-like (TBLg2), heat shock protein 67B2-like (HSP67) were found to be the most stable reference genes across seven conditions. We also identified the most stable reference genes applicable for each distinct condition and the optimal number of reference genes entailed were evaluated. Our study validates reliable reference genes for RT-qPCR analysis which lays the foundation for future studies in pharaoh ant.

Canalized gene expression during development mediates caste differentiation in ants.

Ant colonies are higher-level organisms consisting of specialized reproductive and non-reproductive individuals that differentiate early in development, similar to germ-soma segregation in bilateral Metazoa. Analogous to diverging cell lines, developmental differentiation of individual ants has often been considered in epigenetic terms but the sets of genes that determine caste phenotypes throughout larval and pupal development remain unknown. Here, we reconstruct the individual developmental trajectories of two ant species, Monomorium pharaonis and Acromyrmex echinatior, after obtaining >1,400 whole-genome transcriptomes. Using a new backward prediction algorithm, we show that caste phenotypes can be accurately predicted by genome-wide transcriptome profiling. We find that caste differentiation is increasingly canalized from early development onwards, particularly in germline individuals (gynes/queens) and that the juvenile hormone signalling pathway plays a key role in this process by regulating body mass divergence between castes. We quantified gene-specific canalization levels and found that canalized genes with gyne/queen-biased expression were enriched for ovary and wing functions while canalized genes with worker-biased expression were enriched in brain and behavioural functions. Suppression in gyne larvae of Freja, a highly canalized gyne-biased ovary gene, disturbed pupal development by inducing non-adaptive intermediate phenotypes between gynes and workers. Our results are consistent with natural selection actively maintaining canalized caste phenotypes while securing robustness in the life cycle ontogeny of ant colonies.

High-quality chromosome-level genome assembly and full-length transcriptome analysis of the pharaoh ant Monomorium pharaonis.

BACKGROUND: Ants with complex societies have fascinated scientists for centuries. Comparative genomic and transcriptomic analyses across ant species and castes have revealed important insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying ant caste differentiation. However, most current ant genomes and transcriptomes are highly fragmented and incomplete, which hinders our understanding of the molecular basis for complex ant societies. FINDINGS: By hybridizing Illumina, Pacific Biosciences, and Hi-C sequencing technologies, we de novo assembled a chromosome-level genome for Monomorium pharaonis, with a scaffold N50 of 27.2 Mb. Our new assembly provides better resolution for the discovery of genome rearrangement events at the chromosome level. Analysis of full-length isoform sequencing (ISO-seq) suggested that ∼15 Gb of ISO-seq data were sufficient to cover most expressed genes, but the number of transcript isoforms steadily increased with sequencing data coverage. Our high-depth ISO-seq data greatly improved the quality of gene annotation and enabled the accurate detection of alternative splicing isoforms in different castes of M. pharaonis. Comparative transcriptome analysis across castes based on the ISO-seq data revealed an unprecedented number of transcript isoforms, including many caste-specific isoforms. We also identified a number of conserved long non-coding RNAs that evolved specifically in ant lineages and several that were conserved across insect lineages. CONCLUSIONS: We produced a high-quality chromosome-level genome for M. pharaonis, which significantly improved previous short-read assemblies. Together with full-length transcriptomes for all castes, we generated a highly accurate annotation for this ant species. These long-read sequencing results provide a useful resource for future functional studies on the genetic mechanisms underlying the evolution of social behaviors and organization in ants.

Chromatin accessibility and transcriptome landscapes of Monomorium pharaonis brain.

The emergence of social organization (eusociality) is a major event in insect evolution. Although previous studies have investigated the mechanisms underlying caste differentiation and social behavior of eusocial insects including ants and honeybees, the molecular circuits governing sociality in these insects remain obscure. In this study, we profiled the transcriptome and chromatin accessibility of brain tissues in three Monomorium pharaonis ant castes: queens (including mature and un-mated queens), males and workers. We provide a comprehensive dataset including 16 RNA-sequencing and 16 assay for transposase accessible chromatin (ATAC)-sequencing profiles. We also demonstrate strong reproducibility of the datasets and have identified specific genes and open chromatin regions in the genome that may be associated with the social function of these castes. Our data will be a valuable resource for further studies of insect behaviour, particularly the role of brain in the control of eusociality.

Chromosomal level reference genome of Tachypleus tridentatus provides insights into evolution and adaptation of horseshoe crabs.

Horseshoe crabs including Tachypleus tridentatus are a group of marine arthropods and living fossil species which have existed on the earth for ~500 million years. However, the genetic mechanisms underlying their unique adaptive ability are still unclear. Here, we assembled the first chromosome-level T. tridentatus genome, and proved that this genome is of high quality with contig N50 1.69 Mb. By comparison with other arthropods, some gene families of T. tridentatus experienced significant expansion, which are related to several signaling pathways, endonuclease activities, and metabolic processes. Based on the results of comparative analysis of genomics and 27 transcriptomes from nine tissues, we found that the expanded Dscam genes are located at key hub positions of immune network. Furthermore, the Dscam genes showed higher levels of expression in the yellow connective tissue (the birthplace of blood cells with strong differentiation capability) than the other eight tissues. Besides, the Dscam genes are positively correlated with the expression of the core immunity gene, clotting factor B, which is involved in the coagulation cascade reaction. The effective and unusual immune ability endowed by the expansion and expression of Dscam genes in the horseshoe crab may be a factor that makes the species have a strong environmental adaptability within ~500 million years. The high quality chromosome level genome of a horseshoe crab and unique genomic features reported in this study provide important data resources for future studies on the evolution of marine ecological systems.

The sperm pump of the hangingfly Bittacus planus Cheng (Mecoptera: Bittacidae).

The males of antliophoran insects usually use a sperm pump to transfer liquid sperm into the reproductive tract of the female. However, the fine structure of the sperm pump and its ejaculatory mechanism has not been thoroughly clarified in many groups of Mecoptera. In this paper, the structure of the sperm pump was investigated in the hangingfly Bittacus planus Cheng, 1949 using light and scanning electron microscopy. The sperm pump mainly consists of a piston fused with a piston-carrying sclerite, a pumping chamber enclosed by the genital folds, which comprises the posterior region of the ejaculatory sac, an ostial sclerite, a phallobase, and other associated structures and muscles. The piston crown plays a major role in the piston movement. The ostial sclerite serves as a discharge valve and is controlled by two antagonistic muscles. No depressor muscles were found attached to the piston. The sperm pumping activity is mainly controlled by the combination of the levator of the piston and the retractor and protractor of the ostial sclerite. The ejaculatory mechanism and phylogenetic significance are briefly discussed based on the structure of the sperm pump.

Larval morphology of the hanging-fly Bittacus trapezoideus Huang & Hua (Insecta: Mecoptera: Bittacidae).

The first-instar larva of the hanging-fly Bittacus trapezoideus Huang & Hua, 2005 is described using scanning electron microscopy for the first time. The eruciform larva bears three pairs of thoracic legs and eight pairs of abdominal prolegs. Like other species of the family Bittacidae, the larval head is remarkable for bearing a median ocellus frontally and a pair of compound eyes laterally. Each compound eye consists of seven ommatidia. The larval trunk is symmetrically furnished with furcated protuberances. The larva of B. trapezoideus is diagnostic for bearing short brush-shaped setae on dorsal protuberances. In addition, the labial palp possesses nine basiconic sensilla on the apex; the abdomen bears a pair of sensory protuberances beside the protrusible sucker. The function of the furcated protuberances is briefly discussed.

Co-evolution of the mating position and male genitalia in insects: a case study of a hangingfly.

Hangingflies are unique for the male providing a nuptial gift to the female during mating and taking a face-to-face hanging copulation with the female. Their male genitalia are peculiar for an extremely elongated penisfilum, a pair of well-developed epandrial lobes (9th tergum), and a pair of degenerated gonostyli. However, the co-evolution of their face-to-face copulation behavior and the male genitalia has rarely been studied hitherto. In this paper the mating behavior of the hangingfly Bittacus planus Cheng, 1949 was observed under laboratory conditions, and the morphology of the male and female external genitalia was investigated using light and scanning electron microscopy. The male provides an insect prey as a nuptial gift to the female in courtship and mating process, and commits a face-to-face copulation. During copulation, the male abdomen twists temporarily about 180° to accommodate their face-to-face mating position. The aedeagal complex has an extremely elongated penisfilum, corresponding to the elongated spermathecal duct of the female. The well-developed epandrial lobes serve as claspers to grasp the female subgenital plate during copulation, replacing the function of gonostyli, which are greatly reduced in Bittacidae. The modified proctiger assists the penisfilum to stretch and to enter into the female spermathecal duct. The possible reasons why this species might mate face-to-face are briefly discussed.