Child neurology telemedicine: Analyzing 14 820 patient encounters during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic.

AIM: To determine the long-term impact of telemedicine in child neurology care during the COVID-19 pandemic and with the reopening of outpatient clinics. METHOD: We performed an observational cohort study of 34 837 in-person visits and 14 820 telemedicine outpatient visits across 26 399 individuals. We assessed differences in care across visit types, time-period observed, time between follow-ups, patient portal activation rates, and demographic factors. RESULTS: We observed a higher proportion of telemedicine for epilepsy (International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision G40: odds ratio [OR] 1.4, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.3-1.5) and a lower proportion for movement disorders (G25: OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.6-0.8; R25: OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.6-0.9) relative to in-person visits. Infants were more likely to be seen in-person after reopening clinics than by telemedicine (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.5-1.8) as were individuals with neuromuscular disorders (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.5-1.7). Self-reported racial and ethnic minority populations and those with highest social vulnerability had lower telemedicine participation rates (OR 0.8, 95% CI 0.8-0.8; OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.7-0.8). INTERPRETATION: Telemedicine continued to be utilized even once in-person clinics were available. Pediatric epilepsy care can often be performed using telemedicine while young patients with neuromuscular disorders often require in-person assessment. Prominent barriers for socially vulnerable families and racial and ethnic minorities persist.

A Comparison of Ketamine and Midazolam as First-Line Anesthetic Infusions for Pediatric Status Epilepticus.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric refractory status epilepticus (RSE) often requires management with anesthetic infusions, but few data compare first-line anesthetics. This study aimed to compare the efficacy and adverse effects of midazolam and ketamine infusions as first-line anesthetics for pediatric RSE. METHODS: Retrospective single-center study of consecutive study participants treated with ketamine or midazolam as the first-line anesthetic infusions for RSE at a quaternary care children's hospital from December 1, 2017, until September 15, 2021. RESULTS: We identified 117 study participants (28 neonates), including 79 (68%) who received midazolam and 38 (32%) who received ketamine as the first-line anesthetic infusions. Seizures terminated more often in study participants administered ketamine (61%, 23/38) than midazolam (28%, 22/79; odds ratio [OR] 3.97, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.76-8.98; P < 0.01). Adverse effects occurred more often in study participants administered midazolam (24%, 20/79) than ketamine (3%, 1/38; OR 12.54, 95% CI 1.61-97.43; P = 0.016). Study participants administered ketamine were younger, ketamine was used more often for children with acute symptomatic seizures, and midazolam was used more often for children with epilepsy. Multivariable logistic regression of seizure termination by first-line anesthetic infusion (ketamine or midazolam) including age at SE onset, SE etiology category, and individual seizure duration at anesthetic infusion initiation indicated seizures were more likely to terminate following ketamine than midazolam (OR 4.00, 95% CI 1.69-9.49; P = 0.002) and adverse effects were more likely following midazolam than ketamine (OR 13.41, 95% CI 1.61-111.04; P = 0.016). Survival to discharge was higher among study participants who received midazolam (82%, 65/79) than ketamine (55%, 21/38; P = 0.002), although treating clinicians did not attribute any deaths to ketamine or midazolam. CONCLUSIONS: Among children and neonates with RSE, ketamine was more often followed by seizure termination and less often associated with adverse effects than midazolam when administered as the first-line anesthetic infusion. Further prospective data are needed to compare first-line anesthetics for RSE.

Visits of concern in child neurology telemedicine.

AIM: To characterize child neurology telemedicine visits flagged as requiring in-person evaluation during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHOD: We analyzed 7130 audio-video telemedicine visits between March and November 2020. Visits of concern (VOCs) were defined as telemedicine visits where the clinical scenario necessitated in-person follow-up evaluation sooner than if the visit had been conducted in-person. RESULTS: VOCs occurred in 5% (333/7130) of visits for 292 individuals (148 females, 144 males). Providers noted technical challenges more often in VOCs (40%; 133/333) than visits without concern (non-VOCs) (28%; 1922/6797) (p < 0.05). The median age was younger in VOCs (9 years 3 months, interquartile range [IQR] 2 years 0 months-14 years 3 months) than non-VOCs (11 years 3 months, IQR 5 years 10 months-15 years 10 months) (p < 0.05). Median household income was lower for patients with VOCs ($74 K, IQR $55 K-$97 K) compared to non-VOCs ($80 K, IQR $61 K-$100 K) (p < 0.05). Compared with all other race categories, families who self-identified as Black were more likely to have a VOC (odds ratio 1.53, 95% confidence interval 1.21-2.06). Epilepsy and headache represented the highest percentages of VOCs, while neuromuscular disorders and developmental delay had a higher proportion of VOCs than other neurological disorders. INTERPRETATION: These findings suggest that telemedicine is an effective platform for most child neurology visits. Younger children and those with neuromuscular disorders or developmental delays are more likely to require in-person evaluation. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: It is possible to successfully flag patients who need in-person assessment. Providers can manage issues arising during telemedicine in 95% of visits. Visits flagged as concerning were likely unrelated to modality of patient care. Provider concern was independent of technical difficulties for most telehealth visits. Younger age may be correlated with need for in-person assessment.

Antifungal Activity of Mexican Propolis on Clinical Isolates of Candida Species.

Infections caused by micro-organisms of the genus Candida are becoming a growing health problem worldwide. These fungi are opportunistic commensals that can produce infections-clinically known as candidiasis-in immunocompromised individuals. The indiscriminate use of different anti-fungal treatments has triggered the resistance of Candida species to currently used therapies. In this sense, propolis has been shown to have potent antimicrobial properties and thus can be used as an approach for the inhibition of Candida species. Therefore, this work aims to evaluate the anti-Candida effects of a propolis extract obtained from the north of Mexico on clinical isolates of Candida species. Candida species were specifically identified from oral lesions, and both the qualitative and quantitative anti-Candida effects of the Mexican propolis were evaluated, as well as its inhibitory effect on C. albicans isolate's germ tube growth and chemical composition. Three Candida species were identified, and our results indicated that the inhibition halos of the propolis ranged from 7.6 to 21.43 mm, while that of the MFC and FC50 ranged from 0.312 to 1.25 and 0.014 to 0.244 mg/mL, respectively. Moreover, the propolis was found to inhibit germ tube formation (IC50 ranging from 0.030 to 1.291 mg/mL). Chemical composition analysis indicated the presence of flavonoids, including pinocembrin, baicalein, pinobanksin chalcone, rhamnetin, and biochanin A, in the Mexican propolis extract. In summary, our work shows that Mexican propolis presents significant anti-Candida effects related to its chemical composition, and also inhibits germ tube growth. Other Candida species virulence factors should be investigated in future research in order to determine the mechanisms associated with antifungal effects against them.

Novel use of a virtual driving assessment to classify driver skill at the time of licensure.

Motor vehicle crash rates are highest immediately after licensure, and driver error is one of the leading causes. Yet, few studies have quantified driving skills at the time of licensure, making it difficult to identify at-risk drivers before independent driving. Using data from a virtual driving assessment implemented into the licensing workflow in Ohio, this study presents the first population-level study classifying degree of skill at the time of licensure and validating these against a measure of on-road performance: license exam outcomes. Principal component and cluster analysis of 33,249 virtual driving assessments identified 20 Skill Clusters that were then grouped into 4 major summary "Driving Classes"; i) No Issues (i.e. careful and skilled drivers); ii) Minor Issues (i.e. an average new driver with minor vehicle control skill deficits); iii) Major Issues (i.e. drivers with more control issues and who take more risks); and iv) Major Issues with Aggression (i.e. drivers with even more control issues and more reckless and risk-taking behavior). Category labels were determined based on patterns of VDA skill deficits alone (i.e. agnostic of the license examination outcome). These Skill Clusters and Driving Classes had different distributions by sex and age, reflecting age-related licensing policies (i.e. those under 18 and subject to GDL and driver education and training), and were differentially associated with subsequent performance on the on-road licensing examination (showing criterion validity). The No Issues and Minor Issues classes had lower than average odds of failing, and the other two more problematic Driving Classes had higher odds of failing. Thus, this study showed that license applicants can be classified based on their driving skills at the time of licensure. Future studies will validate these Skill Cluster classes in relation to their prediction of post-licensure crash outcomes.

Assessing seizure burden in pediatric epilepsy using an electronic medical record-based tool through a common data element approach.

OBJECTIVE: Improvement in epilepsy care requires standardized methods to assess disease severity. We report the results of implementing common data elements (CDEs) to document epilepsy history data in the electronic medical record (EMR) after 12 months of clinical use in outpatient encounters. METHODS: Data regarding seizure frequency were collected during routine clinical encounters using a CDE-based form within our EMR. We extracted CDE data from the EMR and developed measurements for seizure severity and seizure improvement scores. Seizure burden and improvement was evaluated by patient demographic and encounter variables for in-person and telemedicine encounters. RESULTS: We assessed a total of 1696 encounters in 1038 individuals with childhood epilepsies between September 6, 2019 and September 11, 2020 contributed by 32 distinct providers. Childhood absence epilepsy (n = 121), Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (n = 86), and Dravet syndrome (n = 42) were the most common epilepsy syndromes. Overall, 43% (737/1696) of individuals had at least monthly seizures, 17% (296/1696) had a least daily seizures, and 18% (311/1696) were seizure-free for >12 months. Quantification of absolute seizure burden and changes in seizure burden over time differed between epilepsy syndromes, including high and persistent seizure burden in patients with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Individuals seen via telemedicine or in-person encounters had comparable seizure frequencies. Individuals identifying as Hispanic/Latino, particularly from postal codes with lower median household incomes, were more likely to have ongoing seizures that worsened over time. SIGNIFICANCE: Standardized documentation of clinical data in childhood epilepsies through CDE can be implemented in routine clinical care at scale and enables assessment of disease burden, including characterization of seizure burden over time. Our data provide insights into heterogeneous patterns of seizure control in common pediatric epilepsy syndromes and will inform future initiatives focusing on patient-centered outcomes in childhood epilepsies, including the impact of telemedicine and health care disparities.

A longitudinal footprint of genetic epilepsies using automated electronic medical record interpretation.

PURPOSE: Childhood epilepsies have a strong genetic contribution, but the disease trajectory for many genetic etiologies remains unknown. Electronic medical record (EMR) data potentially allow for the analysis of longitudinal clinical information but this has not yet been explored. METHODS: We analyzed provider-entered neurological diagnoses made at 62,104 patient encounters from 658 individuals with known or presumed genetic epilepsies. To harmonize clinical terminology, we mapped clinical descriptors to Human Phenotype Ontology (HPO) terms and inferred higher-level phenotypic concepts. We then binned the resulting 286,085 HPO terms to 100 3-month time intervals and assessed gene-phenotype associations at each interval. RESULTS: We analyzed a median follow-up of 6.9 years per patient and a cumulative 3251 patient years. Correcting for multiple testing, we identified significant associations between "Status epilepticus" with SCN1A at 1.0 years, "Severe intellectual disability" with PURA at 9.75 years, and "Infantile spasms" and "Epileptic spasms" with STXBP1 at 0.5 years. The identified associations reflect known clinical features of these conditions, and manual chart review excluded provider bias. CONCLUSION: Some aspects of the longitudinal disease histories can be reconstructed through EMR data and reveal significant gene-phenotype associations, even within closely related conditions. Gene-specific EMR footprints may enable outcome studies and clinical decision support.

Correction: A longitudinal footprint of genetic epilepsies using automated electronic medical record interpretation.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Flow-Induced Precipitation in Thin Capillaries Creates Helices, Lamellae, and Tubes.

Precipitation reactions under flow in confined media are relevant to the control of pathological biomineralization, processes affecting aquifers, and challenges in the petroleum industry. Here we show that for a simple geometry, such conditions create macroscopic structures including helices, tubes, lamellae, slugs, and disordered patterns. All structures emerge when salt solution is slowly injected into thin capillaries filled with hydroxide solution. For the helices, the pitch is proportional to the pump rate revealing a constant period of 0.63 s. Different morphologies of the insoluble metal hydroxide can co-exist causing random transitions along the capillary. On average, 15 % of the final system contains residual hydroxide solution. While mechanically stable for flow speeds above 25 mm min-1 , structures collapse and sediment for slower injection speeds. Some of the observed features share similarities with precipitate tubes in chemical gardens and the dynamics of liquid-liquid pipe flow.

Antibodies Against Immune Checkpoint Molecules Restore Functions of Tumor-Infiltrating T Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinomas.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Ligand binding to inhibitory receptors on immune cells, such as programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4 (CTLA4), down-regulates the T-cell-mediated immune response (called immune checkpoints). Antibodies that block these receptors increase antitumor immunity in patients with melanoma, non-small-cell lung cancer, and renal cell cancer. Tumor-infiltrating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have been found to be functionally compromised. We analyzed HCC samples from patients to determine if these inhibitory pathways prevent T-cell responses in HCCs and to find ways to restore their antitumor functions. METHODS: We collected HCC samples from 59 patients who underwent surgical resection from November 2013 through May 2017, along with tumor-free liver tissues (control tissues) and peripheral blood samples. We isolated tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) and intra-hepatic lymphocytes. We used flow cytometry to quantify expression of the inhibitory receptors PD-1, hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 2 (TIM3), lymphocyte activating 3 (LAG3), and CTLA4 on CD8+ and CD4+ T cells from tumor, control tissue, and blood; we studied the effects of antibodies that block these pathways in T-cell activation assays. RESULTS: Expression of PD-1, TIM3, LAG3, and CTLA4 was significantly higher on CD8+ and CD4+ T cells isolated from HCC tissue than control tissue or blood. Dendritic cells, monocytes, and B cells in HCC tumors expressed ligands for these receptors. Expression of PD-1, TIM3, and LAG3 was higher on tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-specific CD8+ TIL, compared with other CD8+ TIL. Compared with TIL that did not express these inhibitory receptors, CD8+ and CD4+ TIL that did express these receptors had higher levels of markers of activation, but similar or decreased levels of granzyme B and effector cytokines. Antibodies against CD274 (PD-ligand1 [PD-L1]), TIM3, or LAG3 increased proliferation of CD8+ and CD4+ TIL and cytokine production in response to stimulation with polyclonal antigens or TAA. Importantly, combining antibody against PD-L1 with antibodies against TIM3, LAG3, or CTLA4 further increased TIL functions. CONCLUSIONS: The immune checkpoint inhibitory molecules PD-1, TIM3, and LAG3 are up-regulated on TAA-specific T cells isolated from human HCC tissues, compared with T cells from tumor-free liver tissues or blood. Antibodies against PD-L1, TIM3, or LAG3 restore responses of HCC-derived T cells to tumor antigens, and combinations of the antibodies have additive effects. Strategies to block PD-L1, TIM3, and LAG3 might be developed for treatment of primary liver cancer.

Prognostic value of intra-tumoral CD8+ /FoxP3+ lymphocyte ratio in patients with resected colorectal cancer liver metastasis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Patients with isolated colorectal-cancer-liver-metastases (CRCLM) frequently undergo metastatectomy. Tumor-infiltrating-lymphocytes (TILs) have prognostic potential in the setting of primary colorectal cancer, however, their role in CRCLM is less studied. We aimed to study the spatial distribution and prognostic role of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells and FoxP3+ regulatory T-cells at the metastatic site of CRCLM patients. METHODS: TILs were isolated from fresh metastatic tissues of 47 patients with CRCLM. Archived paraffin-embedded tissue, from the same patients, was retrieved. CD8+ and FoxP3+ cells, both in the intra-tumoral and the peri-tumoral compartments, were measured by immunohistochemistry on full tissue sections. Proportions of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ ) and regulatory T-cells (CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+ ), within CD45+ TILs, were measured by flow-cytometry. RESULTS: By immunohistochemistry, individual densities of intra-tumoral or peri-tumoral CD8+ and FoxP3+ cells were not prognostic of survival. However, the intra-tumoral, but not the peri-tumoral, CD8+ /FoxP3+ ratio was an independent predictor of survival (HR 0.43, 95%CI 0.19-0.95, P = 0.032). By flow cytometry, the intra-tumoral CD8+ /regulatory T-cell ratio was also an independent predictor of survival (HR 0.45, 95%CI 0.20-0.99, P = 0.044). CONCLUSIONS: The ratio of cytotoxic (CD8+ ) to regulatory (FoxP3+ ) T-cells, in the intra-tumoral compartment, but not in the peri-tumoral compartment, can predict survival after resection of CRCLM.

[Main immunoregulatory mechanisms that favor breast cancer development]. / Principales mecanismos inmunorreguladores que favorecen el desarrollo del cáncer de mama.

Even after the improvements made in recent years in early diagnosis and treatments, breast cancer is still the most common cancer and the leading cause of cancer death in women around the world. Several attempts to design new alternative therapies like immunotherapy have been evaluated in clinical trials, but they have shown limited efficacy. The failure of immunotherapy may be related to suppressive mechanisms in the tumor environment. Consequently, the development of new immunotherapy based treatment strategies is very important to understand the immunoregulatory mechanisms present in the tumor microenvironment. Some of the immunoregulatory mechanisms described in breast cancer will be discussed in this review.

Multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells in liver cancer: implications for tumor biology and therapy.

Remodeling of tumor microenvironment is a hallmark in the pathogenesis of liver cancer. Being a pivotal part of tumor stroma, multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), also known as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), are recruited and enriched in liver tumors. Owing to their tumor tropism, MSCs are now emerging as vehicles for anticancer drug/gene delivery against liver cancer. However, the exact impact of MSCs on liver cancer remains elusive, as a variety of effects of these cells that have been reported included a plethora of tumor-promoting effects and anti-oncogenic properties. This review aims to dissect the mechanistic insight regarding this observed discrepancy in different experimental settings of liver cancer. Furthermore, we call for caution using MSCs to treat liver cancer or even premalignant liver diseases, before conclusive evidence for safety and efficacy having been obtained.

Immunization with heat-inactivated Staphylococcus aureus induced an antibody response mediated by IgG1 and IgG2 in patients with recurrent tonsillitis.

Currently Staphylococcus aureus is the predominant pathogen isolated from the respiratory tract of patients with recurrent tonsillitis. Because of an increase in multi-drug resistant strains of S. aureus, there is a pressing need for effective treatments and preventive approaches to reduce the risk of invasive and life-threatening infections. A preventive vaccine against S. aureus would have a tremendous clinical impact. However, multiple clinical trials have failed to identify an agent that can induce protective responses. Most trials have been based on subunit vaccines using one or a few purified antigens, which may not be enough to confer protection. Here, the impact of a whole-cell vaccine comprised of heat-inactivated S. aureus was investigated in patients with RT. The vaccine was well tolerated and had no significant local or systemic reactions. Immunization with heat-inactivated S. aureus elicited a significant antibody response characterized by production of IgG1 and IgG2 antibodies and, to a lesser extent, of IgA antibodies. Notably, this response was associated with an important decrease in the incidence of tonsillitis and bacterial colonization of the oropharyngeal mucosa. Our results show that whole-cell inactivated S. aureus is safe and capable of evoking specific antibody responses in patients with recurrent tonsillitis.

Glycine receptor antibodies in PERM and related syndromes: characteristics, clinical features and outcomes.

The clinical associations of glycine receptor antibodies have not yet been described fully. We identified prospectively 52 antibody-positive patients and collated their clinical features, investigations and immunotherapy responses. Serum glycine receptor antibody endpoint titres ranged from 1:20 to 1:60 000. In 11 paired samples, serum levels were higher than (n = 10) or equal to (n = 1) cerebrospinal fluid levels; there was intrathecal synthesis of glycine receptor antibodies in each of the six pairs available for detailed study. Four patients also had high glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (>1000 U/ml), and one had high voltage-gated potassium channel-complex antibody (2442 pM). Seven patients with very low titres (<1:50) and unknown or alternative diagnoses were excluded from further study. Three of the remaining 45 patients had newly-identified thymomas and one had a lymphoma. Thirty-three patients were classified as progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus, and two as stiff person syndrome; five had a limbic encephalitis or epileptic encephalopathy, two had brainstem features mainly, two had demyelinating optic neuropathies and one had an unclear diagnosis. Four patients (9%) died during the acute disease, but most showed marked improvement with immunotherapies. At most recent follow-up, (2-7 years, median 3 years, since first antibody detection), the median modified Rankin scale scores (excluding the four deaths) decreased from 5 at maximal severity to 1 (P < 0.0001), but relapses have occurred in five patients and a proportion are on reducing steroids or other maintenance immunotherapies as well as symptomatic treatments. The glycine receptor antibodies activated complement on glycine receptor-transfected human embryonic kidney cells at room temperature, and caused internalization and lysosomal degradation of the glycine receptors at 37°C. Immunoglobulin G antibodies bound to rodent spinal cord and brainstem co-localizing with monoclonal antibodies to glycine receptor-α1. Ten glycine receptor antibody positive samples were also identified in a retrospective cohort of 56 patients with stiff person syndrome and related syndromes. Glycine receptor antibodies are strongly associated with spinal and brainstem disorders, and the majority of patients have progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus. The antibodies demonstrate in vitro evidence of pathogenicity and the patients respond well to immunotherapies, contrasting with earlier studies of this syndrome, which indicated a poor prognosis. The presence of glycine receptor antibodies should help to identify a disease that responds to immunotherapies, but these treatments may need to be sustained, relapses can occur and maintenance immunosuppression may be required.

Activated tumor-infiltrating CD4+ regulatory T cells restrain antitumor immunity in patients with primary or metastatic liver cancer.

UNLABELLED: The mechanisms that enable liver cancer to escape elimination by the immune system remain unclear, but their elucidation may provide novel therapeutic interventions. We investigated the influence of tumor-infiltrating regulatory T cells on tumor-specific T cell responses in patients with liver cancer, using ex vivo isolated cells from individuals with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) or liver metastases from colorectal cancer (LM-CRC). Here we report that in both HCC and LM-CRC, CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) accumulate in the tumor milieu and are potent suppressors of autologous tumor-specific T cell responses. Especially in LM-CRC, where Treg accumulation is more prominent, there is good evidence for local proliferation of Tregs at the cancer site. We show that tumor Tregs up-regulate the expression of glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR) compared with Tregs in tumor-free liver tissue and blood. Importantly, treatment with soluble GITR ligand (GITRL) induces a decrease in the suppression mediated by the activated tumor-infiltrating Tregs and restores the proliferative capacity and cytokine production of CD4+CD25- T cells. CONCLUSION: Our results show that tumor-associated Tregs are critical for immune evasion in liver cancer, and we propose that GITRL constitutes a rational treatment for this disease.

Harnessing human dendritic cell subsets for medicine.

Immunity results from a complex interplay between the antigen-non-specific innate immune system and the antigen-specific adaptive immune system. The cells and molecules of the innate system employ non-clonal recognition receptors including lectins, Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and helicases. B and T lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system employ clonal receptors recognizing antigens or their derived peptides in a highly specific manner. An essential link between innate and adaptive immunity is provided by dendritic cells (DCs). DCs can induce such contrasting states as immunity and tolerance. The recent years have brought a wealth of information on the biology of DCs revealing the complexity of this cell system. Indeed, DC plasticity and subsets are prominent determinants of the type and quality of elicited immune responses. In this article, we summarize our recent studies aimed at a better understanding of the DC system to unravel the pathophysiology of human diseases and design novel human vaccines.

Parahippocampal neurons encode task-relevant information for goal-directed navigation.

A behavioral strategy crucial to survival is directed navigation to a goal, such as a food or home location. One potential neural substrate for supporting goal-directed navigation is the parahippocampus, which contains neurons that represent an animal's position, orientation, and movement through the world, and that change their firing activity to encode behaviorally relevant variables such as reward. However, little prior work on the parahippocampus has considered how neurons encode variables during goal-directed navigation in environments that dynamically change. Here, we recorded single units from rat parahippocampal cortex while subjects performed a goal-directed task. The maze dynamically changed goal-locations via a visual cue on a trial-to-trial basis, requiring subjects to use cue-location associations to receive reward. We observed a mismatch-like signal, with elevated neural activity on incorrect trials, leading to rate-remapping. The strength of this remapping correlated with task performance. Recordings during open-field foraging allowed us to functionally define navigational coding for a subset of the neurons recorded in the maze. This approach revealed that head-direction coding units remapped more than other functional-defined units. Taken together, this work thus raises the possibility that during goal-directed navigation, parahippocampal neurons encode error information reflective of an animal's behavioral performance.

"I Lay Awake at Night": Latino Family Caregivers' Experiences Covering Out-of-Pocket Costs When Caring for Someone Living With Dementia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The financial burden of caregiving has received less research attention than physical and emotional costs. This is especially true for underserved ethnic minorities. Financial strain affects mental and physical health and is unequally distributed across caregivers of different races and ethnicities. Although caregivers overall spend, on average, one quarter of their income on caregiving, Latino caregivers, the focus of this study, spend nearly half. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: To better understand this disparity, we conducted 11 qualitative interviews with 14 Latino caregivers of persons living with dementia located in either California or Texas. Interview transcripts were thematically coded, guided by a material-psychosocial-behavioral conceptual model of financial strain. RESULTS: We identified 3 themes: daily needs and costs, psychological distress caused by financial issues, and stressful barriers to accessing family and societal support. Furthermore, interviews revealed how Latino culture may influence spending patterns and management of costs. Findings suggest that preference by Latino families to care for a family member in the home may be met with a financial disadvantage due to the high out-of-pocket costs of care. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: A better understanding of the factors contributing to high costs for Latino caregivers and how these costs affect caregivers will inform approaches at both the individual and policy levels and develop culturally relevant interventions to help Latino families to lower caregiving costs. This is especially important as the number of Latinos living with dementia is expected to increase over the next 4 decades and effective interventions are lacking.