Eight-year trajectories of behavior problems and resilience in children exposed to early-life intimate partner violence: The overlapping and distinct effects of individual factors, maternal characteristics, and early intervention.

Childhood exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) can have lasting effects on well-being. Children also display resilience following IPV exposure. Yet, little research has prospectively followed changes in both maladaptive and adaptive outcomes in children who experience IPV in early life. The goal of the current study was to investigate how child factors (irritability), trauma history (severity of IPV exposure), maternal factors (mental health, parenting), and early intervention relate to trajectories of behavior problems (internalizing and externalizing problems) and resilience (prosocial behavior, emotion regulation), over 8 years. One hundred twenty mother-child dyads participated in a community-based randomized controlled trial of an intervention for IPV-exposed children and their mothers. Families completed follow-up assessments 6-8 months (N = 71) and 6-8 years (N = 68) later. Although intention-to-treat analyses did not reveal significant intervention effects, per-protocol analyses suggested that participants receiving an effective dose (eight sessions) of the treatment had fewer internalizing problems over time. Child irritability and maternal parenting were associated with both behavior problems and resilience. Maternal mental health was uniquely associated with child behavior problems, whereas maternal positive parenting was uniquely associated with child resilience. Results support the need for a dyadic perspective on child adjustment following IPV exposure.

Predictors of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization by Multiple Partners Over a Period of 8 Years.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a pervasive social issue with broad physical and mental health implications. Although 35%-56% of women report IPV victimization with more than one violent partner, few studies have identified factors that increase the risk of experiencing IPV across multiple partners (i.e., IPV reengagement). In the current study, multilevel modeling was used to examine the roles of trauma exposure, mental health, and sociodemographic factors in the risk for reengagement in a sample of women (N = 120) with IPV victimization. Participants were drawn from a randomized control trial of an intervention for mothers who had experienced IPV. The results revealed that more psychological but less sexual IPV was associated with increased reengagement. Higher degrees of posttraumatic reexperiencing symptoms were associated with less reengagement. Depressive symptoms were also significantly associated with reengagement such that lower levels of positive affect and increased somatic symptoms were associated with increased reengagement. Higher income levels and less housing instability were associated with more reengagement, ßrange = -.13-.16. Finally, compared to the control condition, participation in the intervention program was significantly associated with lower levels of reengagement at 8-year follow-up, ß = -.75, p = .001. These findings suggest that it is not what happened (i.e., experiences of abuse) but rather a woman's posttraumatic experience (i.e., posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms) that creates risk for reengagement. The findings support the long-term effectiveness of a brief intervention in reducing reengagement.

Dyadic Profiles of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Mothers and Children Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence.

Children who witness intimate partner violence (IPV) develop posttraumatic stress disorder at alarmingly high rates. Research suggests that caregivers' symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTSS) often co-occur alongside children's PTSS, a phenomenon termed "relational posttraumatic stress." The goal of this study is to use dyad-centered analyses to examine heterogeneity in relational PTSS presentations in mother-child dyads, and to determine factors differentiating relational PTSS profiles. Data were drawn from a sample of 231 IPV-exposed, ethno-racially diverse mother-child dyads, with children ranging from ages 4 to 12. The results of a latent profile analysis indicated that a two-profile model was the best fit with the data. Both profiles indicated similar levels of PTSS across the dyad; however, they differed in overall symptom severity. Parenting and IPV severity significantly predicted profile membership; however, age did not. Results suggest that similarities in PTSS presentation should be expected in mother-child dyads, at least in families who experience IPV.

Relationships Between Maltreatment, Posttraumatic Symptomatology, and the Dissociative Subtype of PTSD Among Adolescents.

The purpose of this study was to explore relationships between maltreatment, posttraumatic stress disorder, and the dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder among adolescents. This descriptive study used secondary data from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network Core Data Set. A clinical sample of adolescents exposed to potentially traumatizing events ages 12 to 16 was selected (N = 3081) to explore associations between trauma history characteristics, sociodemographic factors, posttraumatic stress disorder, and the dissociative subtype of PTSD which includes depersonalization and derealization. More than half of adolescents who met criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder also met criteria for the posttraumatic stress disorder dissociative subtype with significant depersonalization/derealization symptoms. No particular maltreatment type was associated with increased odds of posttraumatic stress disorder, with or without the dissociative subtype. All posttraumatic stress disorder-affected adolescents, with or without the dissociative subtype, experienced more overall potentially traumatizing events and maltreatment events than those without a posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis. Girls and adolescents in residential treatment were more likely to have posttraumatic stress disorder with the dissociative subtype. This study provides evidence about the dissociative subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder among adolescents and provides new directions for research on trauma and dissociation. Future research studies should explore the co-occurrence of posttraumatic stress disorder and dissociation with broader range of dissociative symptoms than only depersonalization/derealization to further understand how to diagnose and treat traumatic stress disorders among adolescents.

Moms' Empowerment Program participation associated with improved physical health among Latinas experiencing intimate partner violence.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether participation in the Moms' Empowerment Program (MEP), a 10-week, 10-session intervention designed to provide support and increase access to available community resources for women experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV), enhanced the physical health of participants who self-identified as Latina. METHODS: Mothers of children ages 4-12 who self-identified as Latina and had experienced IPV within the past two years were recruited at three intervention sites in Michigan, Ohio, and Texas, via community postings and referrals from agencies serving IPV-exposed families. Selected study participants (n = 93) were assigned to one of two groups: Treatment (immediate enrollment in the MEP) or Control (placement on a waitlist with an invitation to participate in the MEP after the 10-week study period). Data were drawn from two structured interviews, one at the time of recruitment for the study (Time One), and one following the intervention or wait period (Time Two). RESULTS: After controlling for age, educational attainment, and partner residence (living with a violent partner at the time of the interview), multilevel modeling revealed that improvement in physical health over time was significantly greater among women who participated in the intervention relative to controls. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that enhancing interpersonal connectedness and access to resources positively affects physical health for Latinas experiencing IPV.

Adults' Explanations for Intimate Partner Violence During Childhood and Associated Effects.

OBJECTIVES: Exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) is known to challenge children's optimal development. This study sought to associate participants' beliefs about IPV held during childhood with their adjustment as adults, and to compare their beliefs from childhood to their beliefs in early adulthood. METHOD: A nationally representative sample of 703 Swedish young adults reported on their past and present beliefs about the causes of their parents' IPV. Standardized measures assessed their mental health (anxiety, depression, and traumatic stress symptoms) and the quality of their relationships as adults. RESULTS: The most common explanations for IPV were that the perpetrator suffered from physical or mental illness, had relationship problems, or was distressed. Participants were less likely to blame themselves for IPV or to believe that the perpetrator was cruel when they were adults, compared to their reports of themselves as children. Women were more likely to attribute mental or physical illness as the cause of the perpetrator's IPV. Childhood beliefs that the perpetrator was debilitated (from mental illness or substance abuse) and cruel (took pleasure in violence and/or despised the child) were associated with greater mental health problems and poorer relationship quality in adulthood. CONCLUSION: Evaluation of children's harmful beliefs about IPV could be useful in adapting intervention services aimed at ameliorating negative personal causal attributions.

Ethno-Racial Differences in Children's Attitudes and Beliefs About Violence.

One in 15 children in the United States are exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) each year. Although much is known about the adverse effects of witnessing IPV on children, little attention has been given to the impact of IPV on children of diverse ethno-racial backgrounds. In particular, the association between IPV and children's attitudes and beliefs about violence across different ethno-racial populations remains to be explored. One hundred ninety children between the ages of 4 and 12 years of varying ethno-racial backgrounds who had witnessed recent IPV were interviewed regarding their attitudes and beliefs about IPV. Results show that younger children and White, Black, and Biracial children exhibited more deleterious attitudes and beliefs about violence after exposure to IPV than did older and Latina or Latino children. These findings may indicate the need for more tailored intervention programs that target the specific maladaptive beliefs expressed by children of various demographic groups.

The relationship between types of childhood victimisation and young adulthood criminality.

BACKGROUND: Previous research suggests that some types of childhood abuse and neglect are related to an increased likelihood of perpetrating criminal behaviour in adulthood. Little research, however, has examined associations between multiple different types of childhood victimisation and adult criminal behaviour. AIMS: We sought to examine the contribution of multiple and diverse childhood victimisations on adult criminal behaviour. Our central hypothesis was that, after controlling for gender, substance use and psychopathy, each type of childhood victimisation - specifically experience of property offences, physical violence, verbal abuse, sexual abuse, neglect and witnessed violence - would be positively and independently related to criminal behaviour in young adults. METHODS: We examined data from a large, nationally representative sample of 2244 young Swedish adults who reported at least one form of victimisation, using hierarchical regression analysis to also account for gender, substance use and psychopathy. RESULTS: Experiences of physical assaults, neglect and witnessing violence as a child were significantly associated with adult criminal behaviour, but not experiences of property, verbal or sexual victimizations. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings help to identify those forms of harm to children that are most likely to be associated with later criminality. Even after accounting for gender, substance misuse and psychopathology, childhood experience of violence - directly or as a witness - carries risk for adulthood criminal behaviour, so such children need targeted support and treatment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An Efficacy Trial of an Intervention Program for Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence.

Children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) are at high risk for adjustment problems, especially internalizing disorders. Few evidence-based interventions are available to address internalizing behavior problems in this population. An efficacy trial compared outcomes for 4-6 year old children randomly assigned to a program designed to address the effects of exposure to IPV with those allocated to a waitlist comparison condition. Mothers (N = 120) and children from the United States and Canada were assessed at baseline, 5 weeks later (post-intervention) and at 8-month follow-up. The evaluation compared rates of change over time for child internalizing problems. Results were analyzed using both intent-to-treat (ITT) and per-protocol (PP) approaches. ITT analyses indicated the program reduced internalizing problems for girls at follow-up. PP analyses indicated the program reduced internalizing problems for both boys and girls at post-intervention. In this study, child internalizing problems were significantly reduced through an intervention for the mother and the child.

Risk factors for intimate partner violence victimization across 8 years: Contributions of the posttraumatic stress symptom domains.

OBJECTIVE: Although much remains unknown about what creates risk for women's intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization across time, trauma exposure and mental health are likely contributors. Specifically, posttraumatic stress (PTS) is a risk factor for IPV victimization, yet we know less about the unique contributions of PTS symptom domains to IPV risk. Identification of PTS symptom domains that confer risk for IPV has the potential to inform novel targets of intervention. METHOD: This study follows women with children (N = 118) across 8 years to identify the trauma exposure, mental health, and sociodemographic factors that contribute to IPV victimization risk using longitudinal multilevel modeling. RESULTS: Higher levels of PTS symptoms were associated with initially greater number of IPV victimization acts experienced (i.e., "IPV victimization"). However, across time, women with higher PTS symptoms decreased more quickly in IPV victimization than those with lower PTS symptoms. Higher levels of PTS arousal and reexperiencing were each associated with initially higher levels of IPV victimization. In addition, higher levels of PTS reexperiencing and arousal remained associated with higher levels of IPV victimization across time. Women's age was inversely related to IPV victimization over time only when accounting for the PTS symptom domains. CONCLUSIONS: Findings are that collapsing PTS symptoms into an overall construct may be too imprecise to identify key mechanisms for IPV victimization risk. IPV prevention should prioritize addressing reexperiencing and arousal symptoms to curb future IPV victimization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The impact of intimate partner violence and additional traumatic events on trauma symptoms and PTSD in preschool-aged children.

Children exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) are at increased risk for developing traumatic stress symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Unfortunately, children who witness IPV are often exposed to additional traumatic events. Previous research has indicated that approximately one third of children experience 2 or more direct victimizations each year, and that exposure to one type of victimization places children at risk for exposure to additional types of victimization. Yet little is known about the impact of these additional traumas on children's functioning. For a sample of 120 preschool children (age 4-6 years) exposed to IPV in the past 2 years, 38% were exposed to additional traumatic events, including sexual assaults by family members, physical assaults, serious accidents, and/or life-threatening illnesses. Those exposed to both IPV and additional traumatic events had higher rates of PTSD diagnoses, traumatic stress symptoms (d = 0.96), and internalizing (d = 0.86) and externalizing behavior (d = 0.47) problems, than those exposed to IPV alone. We also compared DSM-IV diagnostic criteria to proposed criteria for evaluating traumatic stress in preschool-aged children. Results revealed the importance of conducting a complete assessment of traumatic events prior to treating children exposed to IPV.

Evaluating preschool children's attitudes and beliefs about intimate partner violence.

Few studies have considered how intimate partner violence (IPV) impacts children's overarching attitudes and beliefs about the prevalence and acceptability of aggression. This pilot study included 92 preschool children exposed to IPV who reported on attitudes and beliefs about violence using a new, theoretically driven measure. Findings illustrate that preschoolers were able to respond reliably on this measure, and that most report at least one maladaptive attitude or belief about violence. Maternal posttraumatic avoidance symptoms, increased child aggression, and decreased child self-blame were associated with maladaptive attitudes and beliefs. These findings, although preliminary, indicate that clinicians may need to address both children's individual adjustment following violence exposure as well as their attitudes and beliefs concerning the acceptability of violence in interpersonal relationships.

The Mental Health of Emerging Adults: Hostile Home Environments and COVID-19.

Purpose: Due to shifts in societal and educational expectations alongside the COVID-19 pandemic, many emerging adults live with their family of origin for extended periods of time. Little is known about patterns of parent-perpetrated maltreatment in emerging adulthood. Therefore, this study evaluates the relation between forms of parent-perpetrated maltreatment, including economic abuse, and COVID stress, on symptoms of depression, anxiety, and traumatic stress. Method: 423 emerging adults who were enrolled in college in the United States in March of 2020 were recruited via MTurk to complete an online survey. An age-related COVID questionnaire and six empirically validated measures assess levels of COVID-19 exposure, lifetime maltreatment, economic abuse, and mental health status. Results: 13.0% of participants reported maltreatment that most recently occurred over the age of 18 in their household of origin. Mean COVID stress level was found to be significantly higher in the Maltreated Over 18 group compared to the Never Maltreated group (t(345) = -3.03, p = 0.003), and in the Maltreated Under 18 group compared to the Never Maltreated group (t(346) = -3.20, p = 0.002). In accounting for the contribution of demographic variables, maltreatment chronicity, economic abuse, and COVID stress, our model predicted 38.6% of variance in depression symptoms, 37.2% of variance in anxiety symptoms, and 42.9% of variance in traumatic stress. Conclusions: Findings indicate need for increased maltreatment screenings within the emerging adult population and calls for age-specific interventions to address the mental health disparities experienced by emerging adults with maltreatment histories.

Enhancing child mental health in school and community settings: A pilot study of the kids' empowerment program.

Many children experience serious mental health problems that, if left untreated, have long-term consequences for their optimal development. Many more have symptoms that fall below clinical thresholds and remain untreated. Yet there are substantial barriers to receiving help. A newly developed preventive intervention program focused on promoting emotional well-being was provided to children in school and community settings and evaluated to assess its effects on mental health outcomes of children's anxiety and depression. Participants in both intervention and control groups completed standardized measures of mental health in interviews (children) and online (parents) at baseline and approximately 12 weeks later. Intent to treat analyses showed a significant interaction effect for program children high in anxiety at baseline using child report. Similar results were found when using per protocol data (number of sessions attended). No effects were found for the outcome of depression with the intent to treat analyses using either child or parent report. However, children who attended more sessions experienced greater change in parent-rated depression and the interaction of sessions attended and baseline depression significantly predicted change in depression when using both child and parent report. Thus, children with greater internalizing problems appeared to benefit most from the program. These preliminary results suggest that it may be possible to address children's mental health challenges in community and school settings. Implications for future study and program enhancements are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal Correlates of Maternal Involvement and Spanking in Spanish-speaking Latinas Who Have Experienced Intimate Partner Violence.

Mothers experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) have been found to have negative long-term parenting outcomes, such as reduced maternal involvement and greater use of physical punishment, which represent potential pathways by which IPV negatively affects children. Factors influencing these parenting practices have not been examined in IPV-exposed Latinas. The aim of this study is to understand the factors that affect maternal involvement and spanking by Latinas to contribute to culturally-informed intervention development and refinement. A total of 93 Spanish-speaking Latinas who had experienced IPV completed standardized measures of maternal involvement, spanking, IPV, depression, and posttraumatic stress (PTS) and provided demographic information. Slightly over half of the women participated in an intervention program. Longitudinal multilevel modeling (MLM) demonstrated that higher levels of maternal depression predicted lower levels of involvement over time. PTS reexperiencing symptoms were positively related to involvement, such that mothers with higher levels of reexperiencing reported higher levels of involvement. An independent longitudinal MLM revealed that higher amounts of IPV exposure and higher levels of PTS arousal symptoms were associated with higher levels of spanking, while maternal employment was associated with lower levels of this same parenting behavior. Maternal involvement increased over time, where there was no significant change in spanking over time, and no effect of the intervention program on either parenting practice. Results suggest clinical interventions should target reductions in depression and specific PTS symptom subdomains as pathways to improving parenting in IPV-exposed Latinas. Continued study is needed to understand the relationship between reexperiencing and maternal involvement.

Preschoolers' Intimate Partner Violence Exposure and Their Speeded Control Abilities Eight Years Later: A Longitudinal Mediation Analysis.

Executive functioning (EF), or a set of related cognitive skills that facilitate goal-oriented behavior, is a critical aspect of adaptive development. Mounting research indicates that exposure to environmental threats during the preschool years jeopardizes EF; however, the extent and mechanisms through which early exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) influences children's EF are unknown. Using data from an eight-year longitudinal investigation of mothers who had experienced IPV and their preschool-aged children (N = 120), this study examined the relative influence of recent and remote IPV exposure on speeded control-a component of EF influenced by processing speed-in late childhood. Results indicated that preschoolers' IPV exposure had a significant negative impact on their speeded control eight years later, and this relation was mediated by the remote effects of IPV on their mothers. Specifically, IPV was positively associated with maternal depression, which in turn contributed to greater use of negative parenting strategies when children were of preschool age. Children's IPV exposure during late childhood was not predictive of their concurrent speeded control. These findings lend further evidence to the notion that the preschool years are a sensitive period for the mastery of EF skills and that IPV exposure is a distinct risk factor that can have protracted effects on children's cognitive development. Further, this study points to modifiable environmental risk factors, which, through targeted prevention and intervention efforts, could promote EF across the lifespan.

The relation of violence exposure and ethnicity to intelligence and verbal-performance discrepancies in incarcerated male adolescents.

Incarcerated populations have an estimated incidence of intellectual disabilities (IDs) far higher than national norms, ranging as high as 10%. In the present study, the relation between ID and violence exposure in 115 incarcerated adolescents was examined. Interpersonal violence exposure (IPV-E) predicted an average decrease in full scale IQ of 4.5 points, explaining approximately 5% of the difference in IQ. Child maltreatment increased the odds of having a verbal disability by three folds and explained 17% of the variance in verbal disability. Hierarchical regression was used to examine the relative contribution of ethnicity, poverty, and violence exposure to intellectual functioning. The literature on racial bias in incarceration and the implications for the present study are discussed.

Trauma History and Social Support Among American Indian/Alaska Native and Non-Native Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.

Social support (SS) is one of the most important protective factors against the deleterious effects of trauma exposure on mental health, but only a few studies have looked at predictors of SS among trauma-exposed populations. This study examines what predicts SS from friends, family, and other significant individuals in an ethnically diverse group of 61 women residing in Alaskan shelters for women who have experienced Intimate Partner Violence (IPV). Results from bivariate tests indicated that survivors who identified as American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN) reported significantly higher SS from family (M = 5.04, SD = 1.74) in comparison with those who do not identify as AIAN (M = 3.80, SD = 2.31), t(56) = 2.24, p < .05. Income was positively correlated with higher SS from friends, r(59) = .33, p < .05. Lifetime history of interpersonal trauma was significantly and negatively related to variation in SS across multiple domains. When sociodemographic variables, trauma history, and violent relationship history were entered into a multiple regression, this model predicted 34% (p < .001) of the variance in Overall SS and 22% (p < .01), 32% (p < .001), and 17% (p < .05) of SS from family, friends, and other significant individuals, respectively. Taken together, these preliminary results suggest that income, race, lifetime interpersonal trauma history, and number of violent partners are important predictors of SS among women IPV survivors residing in shelters.

Contributions to Depressed Affect in Latina Women: Examining the Effectiveness of the Moms' Empowerment Program.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a significant social and public health problem that includes physical violence, sexual violence, threats of physical or sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression by an intimate partner. Estimates suggest that 35% of Latinas living in the United States experience IPV in their lifetime, with known severe negative outcomes. One mental health consequence of concern is depression, which disproportionately affects IPV-exposed Latinas. The present study tested the effectiveness of the Moms' Empowerment Program (MEP), a culturally adapted intervention to reduce depressive symptoms among IPV-exposed Spanish-speaking Latina mothers. Additional psychosocial predictors of levels of depressed affect over time are examined, including levels of post-traumatic stress, IPV exposure, positive parenting, parental acceptance of children's negative emotions, and maternal employment. Participants (N = 72) were assigned to a treatment or a wait-list comparison condition, and those in the treatment group completed a 10-week group intervention addressing the unique problems associated with IPV exposure, mental health, and parenting among Spanish-speaking Latinas. Results of multilevel modeling revealed that participation in the MEP was associated with significant reductions in depressed affect. Lower levels of post-traumatic stress and higher levels of positive parenting, maternal acceptance of children's negative emotions, and maternal employment predicted lower levels of depressed affect. The amount of total IPV exposure was not significantly associated with the extent of depressed affect. The MEP represents a culturally tailored, evidence-based intervention to reduce depressed affect among Spanish-speaking Latinas. The clinical implications of the additional predictors of levels of depressed affect are discussed.

Profiles of Traumatic Stress Symptoms in Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence.

Childhood exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with a host of problems, including the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). PTSS include a wide range of unique symptomatology and as a result, clinical presentations of PTSS can vary in both distribution and overall number of symptoms. Work in child and adolescent samples has largely focused on factors predicting the total number of symptoms (i.e., symptom severity), with less work focused on both patterns of symptom number and distribution. Furthermore, few studies have examined how functional impairment varies in relation to PTSS presentation. The goal of the current study is to (a) document patterns of PTSS severity and distribution in children with histories of witnessing IPV, (b) examine the factors that predict different PTSS presentations, and (c) investigate how PTSS presentation is associated with functional impairment. Data for this study were drawn from a sample of 236 children between the ages of 4 and 12 years and their mothers who had experienced recent IPV. Families reported high levels of IPV in the past year, and children reported moderate levels of PTSS. A latent profile analysis of PTSS revealed that three profiles were the best-fitting model for the data. The three profiles were differentiated between low, moderate, and high levels of PTSS, and membership in the profiles varied by children's age and trauma history. The results of this study give important information about the potential development of PTSS as well as clinically useful information about the relationship between children's PTSS and their functioning following exposure to IPV.