The influence of cultural orientation on associations between Puerto Rican adolescent mothers' parenting and toddler compliance and defiance.

OBJECTIVES: It is imperative that individual differences in the cultural contexts of adolescent mothers, whose parenting is often linked to poor child outcomes, be better understood, especially among Puerto Rican-origin mothers who experience high rates of poverty. Behaviors that mothers use to elicit compliance from their children are important to investigate, because children's ability to engage in regulated, compliant behavior has long-term consequences for their adjustment. This study tested whether mothers' orientation to both American and Latino cultures influenced the associations between such maternal behaviors and compliant and defiant child behaviors. METHOD: The sample included 123 young, Puerto Rican-origin mothers and their 24-month-old toddlers. Behaviors coded from a toy cleanup task measured maternal guidance and control and child compliance and defiance, and acculturation and enculturation were measured with a self-report questionnaire. RESULTS: Maternal guidance predicted more child compliance, with no significant variations by cultural orientation; however, mothers who were more enculturated had children who were more compliant. As predicted, mothers' more frequent use of control was related to more child defiance for mothers reporting high levels of acculturation, and not for less acculturated mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the hypothesis that individual differences in cultural orientation influence variations in associations between certain maternal and child behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record

Friend Support and the Parenting of Latina Adolescent Mothers: The Moderating Role of Maternal Age.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the role of maternal age in the relation between social support from friends and parenting adjustment in a sample of young Latina mothers and their 18-month-old children (N=168). METHODS: Hierarchical multiple regression analyses tested friend social support types (emotional, socializing, child care) as differential predictors of maternal behavior (sensitivity, cognitive growth-fostering, detachment) displayed during mother-child play interactions. To consider maternal development, the moderating role of maternal age on these associations was tested. RESULTS: The relations between friend emotional and child care support and parenting were moderated by maternal age. Emotional support was related to the use of more growth-fostering parenting behaviors for older (≥ 19.5 yrs.), but not for younger Latina mothers. Child care support from friends was related to the display of more detachment and less cognitive growth-fostering behaviors among the younger (≤ 18.7 yrs.) mothers only. Immigrant mothers reported significantly less overall friend support and emotional support than mothers born in the mainland U.S. CONCLUSIONS: The findings emphasize the importance of assessing the types of friend support as separate measures in an ecological context that takes into account mothers' generational and developmental level.

Dyadic synchrony among young Latina mothers and their toddlers: The role of maternal and child behavior.

Synchronous interactions are an important indicator of parent-child relationship quality with positive implications for child development. Latina adolescent mothers face several demographic challenges that place them at risk for less synchronous interactions. To identify factors that may facilitate more optimal parent-child relationships in this population, our study examined maternal sensitivity and children's behavioral styles as joint predictors of dyadic synchrony among young Latina mothers and their toddlers. Mother-toddler dyads (N = 170) were observed interacting across different tasks, and toddlers' behavior was observed during the administration of a developmental test. Results of multivariate regressions revealed additive effects of maternal sensitivity and child behavioral styles (i.e., dysregulation and positive attentional control). Maternal sensitivity related to higher dyadic synchrony for the entire sample. Positive attentional control was related to higher dyadic synchrony for mother-daughter dyads only. Although no gender differences in dyadic synchrony or the behavior style variables emerged, the relative contribution of maternal and child factors differed by child gender, suggesting that mothers may have responded differently to similar behavior and affect displayed by boys and girls. The findings provide insights regarding factors that contribute to dyadic synchrony in this understudied population and emphasize the need to consider child gender when studying parent-child interactions in young Latina families.

Associations Between Maternal Control and Child Defiance Among Puerto Rican-Origin Adolescent Mothers and Their Toddlers: A Person-Centered Examination.

Parents use different forms of control to direct children toward their own demands and expectations; however, the literature on Latina parenting has demonstrated mixed findings on the influence of control on child outcomes (Halgunseth, Ispa, & Rudy, 2006). This study tested how maternal control relates to child dysregulated defiance within the cultural context experienced by Latina mother-child dyads. Participants included 122 adolescent mothers of Puerto Rican-origin and their toddlers. Highlighting the importance of ecologically-valid and culturally-sensitive methods of behavioral observation, mother and child behavior were observed during a clean-up task; mothers also reported on their levels of US acculturation and Puerto Rican enculturation. Using person-centered analyses, we identified groups of mothers by parenting behaviors (i.e., guidance, control, positive affect) and cultural orientation (i.e., acculturation, enculturation). Results revealed four sub-groups of mothers with distinct associations to child defiance: 1) enculturated/controlling, 2) bicultural/guiding, 3) bicultural/controlling, 4) acculturated/controlling. Toddlers of the mothers in the acculturated/controlling sub-group displayed greater defiance toward their mothers than those of mothers in the enculturated/controlling sub-group, even though the groups displayed similar levels of control behaviors and positive affect. Toddlers of the enculturated/controlling and the bicultural/guiding mothers displayed similar low levels of defiance, suggesting two different parenting approaches with favorable consequences for child behavior in adolescent mother and toddler dyads. Implications for culturally-informed research and tailored services for young Latina families are discussed.

Los padres usan diferentes estrategias de control para dirigir el comportamiento de sus hijos hacia sus expectativas y demandas. La literatura ha arrojado resultados contradictorios acerca de la influencia que el control tiene en el desarrollo de los niños latinos (Halgunseth, Ispa & Rudy, 2006). Este estudio investiga la asociación entre las formas de control materno y el desafío desregulado de los hijos, en el contexto cultural de las díadas madre-hijo/a latinas. Los participantes incluyeron 122 madres adolescentes de origen puertorriqueño y sus hijos/as de 24 meses. Con énfasis en la importancia de usar métodos ecológicamente válidos y sensibles al contexto cultural, se observó el comportamiento de madres e hijos durante una tarea de limpieza. Las madres también reportaron sus niveles de aculturación a la cultura americana y enculturación a la cultura portorriqueña. Usando análisis centrados en la persona, se identificaron grupos de madres de acuerdo a sus comportamientos de crianza (guíanza, control y afecto positivo) y orientatión cultural (aculturación y enculturación). Los resultados arrojaron cuatro sub-grupos de madres que demostraron asociaciones diferenciales con el nivel de desafío de los niños/as: 1) enculturación/control, 2) bicultural/guianza, 3) bicultural/control, 4) aculturación/control. Los niños de las madres del sub-grupo de aculturación/control respondieron con mayor nivel de desafío a sus madres que los niños del sub-grupo enculturación/control, aunque ambos sub-grupos demostraron niveles similares de control y afecto positivo. Los niños en los sub-grupos de enculturación/control y bicultural/guianza exhibieron niveles similares y bajos de desafío, lo que sugiere dos estilos de crianza diferentes con resultados positivos para el comportamiento de los niños de madres latinas jóvenes. Se discuten implicaciones para investigatión culturalmente informada y servicios adaptados para familias latinas jóvenes.

Psychological Adjustment among Young Puerto Rican Mothers: Perceived Partner Support and the Moderating Role of Latino Cultural Orientation.

Adolescent mothers face multiple stressors and are at risk for experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms and parenting stress. This study examined the interplay of Latino cultural orientation and perceived support from romantic partners in protecting the adjustment of young, low-income, Puerto Rican mothers (N = 103; M age = 18.0 yrs; SD = 1.2) during the second year postpartum. In multivariate analyses, perceived partner support was uniquely and negatively associated with both maternal depressive symptoms and parenting stress. However, in the case of parenting stress, this association was moderated by mothers' Latino cultural orientation. Perceived partner support was related to less parenting stress when mothers endorsed a relatively strong Latino cultural orientation; perceived partner support was no longer protective at low levels of Latino orientation. The implications for intervention and for the understanding of the role of culture in social support processes within close relationships are discussed.

Developmental outcomes of toddlers of young Latina mothers: Cultural, family, and parenting factors.

Children of adolescent mothers are at risk for poor developmental outcomes. This study is among the first to examine how cultural, family, and parenting factors prospectively predict the cognitive and language development of children of young Latina mothers (N=170; Mage=17.9 years). Mothers were interviewed and observed interacting with their children at 18 months (W1). Children were tested at 18 (W1) and 24 (W2) months. Mothers' cultural orientation (W1) was related to aspects of the childrearing environment (W1), which in turn had implications for the children's development (W2). Specifically, a stronger orientation toward American culture was related to higher mother-reported engagement in parenting by their own mothers (grandmothers), which in turn predicted stronger gains in cognitive and expressive language functioning from W1 to W2. A stronger Latino orientation related to the display of more directiveness and greater mother-reported engagement by the children's biological fathers; directiveness, in turn, predicted fewer gains in cognitive functioning only when father engagement was low and did not predict expressive language development. Finally, mothers' display of more positive affect, a stronger American orientation, and higher grandmother engagement uniquely predicted gains in W2 expressive language functioning. Implications for intervention are discussed.

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Behavior Problems among Latina Adolescent Mothers: The Buffering Effect of Mother-reported Partner Child Care Involvement.

We examined the relations between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing and externalizing problems in a sample of 125 adolescent Latina mothers (primarily Puerto Rican) and their toddlers. We also tested the influence of mother-reported partner child care involvement on child behavior problems and explored mother-reported partner characteristics that related to this involvement. Results suggested that maternal depressive symptoms related to child internalizing and externalizing problems when accounting for contextual risk factors. Importantly, these symptoms mediated the link between life stress and child behavior problems. Mother-reported partner child care interacted with maternal depressive symptoms for internalizing, not externalizing, problems. Specifically, depressive symptoms related less strongly to internalizing problems at higher levels of partner child care than at lower levels. Participants with younger partners, co-residing partners, and in longer romantic relationships reported higher partner child care involvement. Results are discussed considering implications for future research and interventions for mothers, their children, and their partners.