Nutritional success in a semi-arid land: examination of Tswana agro-pastoralists of the eastern Kalahari, Botswana.

The cultural and environmental factors affecting the food quest and nutritional status of the Moshaweng Tlokwa, a Tswana agro-pastoral society occupying the semi-arid eastern Kalahari Desert of Botswana, are examined. Data are presented on methods of food procurement, storage, preparation, and preservation. Tlokwa diet is based on agriculture horticulture and animal husbandry but a surprising number of wild species are regularly used as food. This pattern is nutritionally protective and viewed by the author as a principal reason for Tlokwa dietary success in their semi-arid environment. Data are presented on food habits, dietary prohibitions, and characteristic diets of infants, children, adolescents, and adults. Many Tlokwa foods are encouraged or prohibited on the basis of the consumers age, sex, and social development. Such patterns reduce competition for dietary resources, assure a more equitable distribution of food, and sustain the nutritional quality of diet. During 1973 to 1975 the Tlokwa appeared healthy and well fed; heavy rain-fall had just broken a 7-year drought. Kwashiorkormarasmus, avitaminosis, or other classical signs of malnutrition were not observed. A trend towards bottle feeding was noted. Children and adolescents are rapidly losing their ability to identify edible wild food resources. The author concludes that the Tlokwa heretofore have coped satisfactorily with drought in their semi-arid territory and recommends continued diversification of their food quest. Diversity is viewed as essential if the Tlokwa are to maintain their nutritional well-being in coming decades.

Breast milk composition: fat content and fatty acid composition in vegetarians and non-vegetarians.

Milk from vegetarians contained a lower proportion of fatty acids derived from animal fat and a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from dietary vegetable fat. No significant differences were observed between dietary groups in percent fat in the milk or in proportions of fatty acids synthesized de novo in the mammary gland. Among women consuming less than 35 g animal fat per day, percent milk fat was significantly correlated with animal fat intake. Among women consuming greater than 35 g animal fat, percent fat in milk was positively correlated with percent of C10:0, C12:0, and C18:3 and negatively correlated with percent of C16:0 and C18:0 in the milk fat. These findings suggest that there is a maximum amount of C16:0 and C18:0 that can be taken up from the blood and subsequently secreted into the milk.

Validity of a food frequency questionnaire for the determination of individual food intake.

The validity of a food frequency questionnaire for dietary assessment was tested with 31 college students living and dining in a dormitory. A food frequency questionnaire was mailed to participants requesting them to estimate their usual intake of specific food items. Actual food consumption was determined at each meal with self-report forms. These forms required participants to indicate foods chosen at that meal. To test the validity of the frequency questionnaire, regression equations were calculated for each individual using the frequency questionnaire data as the independent variable (X) and actual intake data as the dependent variable (Y). Eighty-four percent of the r values were greater than 0.50 and 55% were greater than 0.71. All were significant at the 0.002 level or below. As an alternative test of validity, the percentage of over- and underestimation of each food group was also assessed. Foods which are often major components of a meal (eg, flesh foods) were estimated with greater accuracy than those foods which could be considered accessory (eg, nuts or seeds). While it appears that a large percentage of individuals could accurately estimate their intake with this technique, some individuals were unsuccessful in doing so. Further research is needed to identify individual characteristics which may predict success with this technique.

Influence of folate status and polyphenol intake on thiamin status of Irish women.

The relationship of folate status and polyphenol intake to thiamin status was studied in 80 randomly selected elderly and young Irish women, with key variables affecting thiamin nutrition controlled for. Folate, thiamin, and polyphenol intakes were measured during a 4-wk baseline (elderly and young) and 6-wk double-blind (elderly) supplementation period. Only elderly subjects were randomly assigned to placebo, folic acid (400 micrograms), thiamin (10 mg), or folic-acid-plus-thiamin groups. Thiamin status (TPP effect) was not affected by folate status (plasma and erythrocyte folate) during the baseline period or with folic acid supplementation alone. Polyphenol intake was not correlated with thiamin status. Only thiamin intake and thiamin supplementation significantly affected thiamin status. Because the majority of subjects (102 of 160) were initially thiamin deficient, enrichment of Irish grain products with thiamin is recommended.

Nutritional factors and anticonvulsant therapies: effect on growth in children with epilepsy.

Factors influencing growth before puberty were examined in a group of 32 epileptic children in a cross-sectional investigation. Participants in the study were divided into two groups according to what anticonvulsant drug, carbamazepine or valproic acid, they were currently taking. Dietary intakes of energy, iron, and zinc were assessed and hemoglobin and serum zinc concentrations were evaluated. Measurements of height and weight were compared with standard growth charts prepared by the National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD. A Student's t test comparison was made along with analyses of covariance and stepwise regression, and no significant differences were found between the two groups of children in terms of height or weight. Linear growth was normal. We found that low dietary zinc intake, 64-87% of the recommended dietary allowance, was not associated with reduced height in children. In addition, neither the number of years taking anticonvulsant medication nor the total amount of drug intake had a significant effect on weight. This was an unanticipated result because valproic acid has been associated with weight gain because of increased appetite.

Validity of telephoned diet recalls and records for assessment of individual food intake.

Six methods of assessing individual food intake reported by telephone were compared for accuracy. A sample of 107 students eating in a dormitory dining hall was used. Two 7-day and four 3-day diet records were reported by telephone to either an interviewer or an answering device; and fourteen 6-h recalls and seven 24-h recalls were obtained by an interviewer over the telephone. To examine validity, the investigators observed respondents' intake for 28 days. Food item agreement scores comparing observed and reported data were calculated. Seven-day records were most accurate (87% food item agreement); 3-day records and 6-h recalls were equivalent (75%); and 24-h recalls were least accurate (69%). There were no significant difference in accuracy of reporting records to an interviewer versus a recording device, but respondents preferred the interviewer. Results of telephoned reporting compare favorably with personal interview techniques used by other investigators, indicating that telephoned methods should be further explored in community settings.

Nutrient intake of urban and rural elderly receiving home-delivered meals.

We evaluated nutrient intake (as measured by a 3-day food record) and nondietary factors that may influence nutrient intake in urban (n = 48) and rural (n = 47) elderly clients in the Title III C home-delivered meal program. Mean nutrient intake did not differ significantly between the two populations; each population met or exceeded 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for all nutrients other than energy, vitamin B-6, calcium, magnesium, and zinc. However, 70% of the individuals within each population had intakes below 66% of the RDA for three or more nutrients and were thus classified as having poor diets. Factors such as the need for assistance with shopping and cooking, living situation, vitamin/mineral supplementation, prescription drugs, and dentition did not significantly predict nutritional intake in either the urban or the rural cohorts. However, 50% to 70% of both the rural and the urban homebound elderly needed assistance with cooking and shopping for food. The rural elderly relied on family members for help with shopping and cooking to a greater extent than did their urban counterparts. We conclude that nutrient intake of the homebound elderly is not affected by geographic location. However, both rural and urban clients are at risk for developing nutrient deficiencies.

Food choices of vegetarians and nonvegetarians during pregnancy and lactation.

Data on food choices and nutrient intake were obtained from 60 lactating women, including 29 vegetarians. The most common changes in consumption patterns during pregnancy were increased intake of high-protein foods, especially milk products, and decreased intake of coffee, tea, and alcohol. The changes were partially based on food cravings and/or aversions. In addition to high-protein foods, some of the women craved fruits and sweets. Items most commonly eliciting aversive reactions were vegetables, strong-smelling and strong-tasting combination dishes, and greasy foods. Aversions to coffee, tea, and alcohol were almost as frequent as those to greasy foods. Nutrient intake during lactation was measured using 24-hour recalls and 2-day diet records that also considered dietary supplements. A total of 332 intake records were evaluated relative to the RDAs for lactating women. Mean energy intake was 2,200 kcal (88% of the recommendation), and mean protein intake was 86 gm (134% of the RDA). Mean nutrient intakes from diet alone ranged from 89% of the RDA for iron to 154% for vitamin A; mean intakes from diet plus supplements ranged from 133% of the RDA for calcium to 581% of the RDA for thiamin. Dietary supplementation provided a substantial part of the intake of some nutrients; for most women, however, the RDAs were met by diet alone.

Cash cropping, subsistence agriculture, and nutritional status among mothers and children in lowland Papua New Guinea.

The influence of cash crop income, subsistence agriculture, and purchased foods on nutritional status was examined among three ethnic groups in lowland Papua New Guinea. In their home areas, these groups had been hunter-gatherers, agriculturalists, and hunter-gatherers with limited agriculture. Multiple regression revealed that cash crop income was positively associated with anthropometric status and energy intake among children. Expenditure on food was related to the child's arm circumference but not to nutrient intake. The amount of food planted in the garden was not related to child nutritional status. In contrast, the amount of food planted was positively associated with body mass index of mothers. Consumption of rice and fish was related to food expenditures. Nutritional status was better among families who were agriculturalists prior to resettlement than among hunter-gatherers. The former had more income from cash crops, smaller households, and planted more food in their gardens. Therefore, cash cropping need not decrease nutritional status if home gardens are maintained.

Value of traditional foods in meeting macro- and micronutrient needs: the wild plant connection.

The importance of edible wild plants may be traced to antiquity but systematic studies are recent. Anthropologists, botanists, ecologists, food scientists, geographers, nutritionists, physicians and sociologists have investigated cultural aspects and nutrient composition of edible species. Important contributions to the diet from edible wild plants are well documented and numerous studies reveal roles played by 'lesser-known' species when meeting macro- and micronutrient needs of groups at risk, whether infants and children, pregnant and/or lactating women, or the elderly. The literature is vast and scattered but information on the macro- and micronutrient content of wild plants and their importance to the human diet appear in five kinds of publications: cultural works by social scientists, descriptions and inventories by botanists, dietary assessment studies by nutritionists, intervention programmes managed by epidemiologists and physicians, and composition data generally conducted by food scientists and chemists. Many macro- and micronutrient-dense wild species deserve greater attention but lack of adequate nutrient databases, whether by region or nation, limit educational efforts to improve diets in many Third World areas. Limited and uneven compositional data generally reflect factors of cost and personal interest in key nutrients. Whilst edible wild plants are regularly deprecated by policy makers and considered to be the 'weeds of agriculture', it would be tragic if this led to loss of ability to identify and consume these important available species.

Controlling on-farm inventories of bulk-tank raw milk--an opportunity to protect public health.

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point programs provide a systematic approach for the reduction of food safety problems through preventive measures. On-farm programs similar to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point, which target pathogen reduction and screening can provide assurance to processors and consumers that on-farm food safety is a high priority. Additional voluntary oversight of farm practices, including monitoring of and controlled access to raw milk supplies on the farm could further contribute to public food safety. Off-farm sales of raw milk directly to the public have resulted in foodborne outbreaks of multidrug resistant salmonellosis in California and Washington when raw milk was used for unlicensed cheese production. If dairy producers in those cases had voluntary programs in place to inventory, monitor, and control access to raw milk supplies, the outbreaks probably could have been prevented.

From Olympia to Atlanta: a cultural-historical perspective on diet and athletic training.

Greek and Roman writers described diet and training of Olympic athletes. Lucian (A.D. 120-ca. 180) described distance and speed work in runners; Galen (A.D. 131-201) recommended ball-related exercises to train vision and the body; Philostratos (A.D. 170-249) suggested cross training by endurance running, weight training, and wrestling with animals. The ancient Greek training system, the tetrad (eta tau epsilon tau rho alpha sigma), was a four-day cycle with each day devoted to a different activity. Diogenes Laertius (died A.D. 222) wrote that Greek athletes trained on dried figs, moist cheese and wheat; then the pattern changed and focused on meat. Epictetus (2nd century A.D.) wrote that Olympic victors avoided desserts and cold water and took wine sparingly. Philostratos deprecated athletic diet in his era, a pattern based on white bread sprinkled with poppy seeds, fish and pork. Americans at the XIth Olympiad in Berlin (1936) consumed beefsteak with average daily intake of 125 grams of butter or cotton oil, three eggs, custard for dessert and 1.5 L of milk. The American pattern at Berlin was characterized by ad libitum intake of white bread, dinner rolls, fresh vegetables and salads. At Atlanta, more than 5 million meals will be served during the Olympic festival. The highly varied menu will include fresh vegetables and dips; fruits, cheeses and breads; salads; pasta, rice and fruit salads; soups; meat and seafood entrees; hot vegetables; desserts; and beverages. American Southern specialties will be served.

Search for the competitive edge: a history of dietary fads and supplements.

The premise and promise of ergogenic aid use is rooted in antiquity and is based upon superstition and ritualistic behavior of athletes who perceive that past performances were predicated upon unique dietary constituents or dietary manipulation. Accounts from ancient times recommended that athletes and soldiers preparing for battle consume specific animal parts to confer agility, speed or strength associated with that animal. Scientific understanding of the chemical and physiological nature of muscular work in the early 20th century was followed by ergogenic aid use by athletes and rationalized as "scientific" justification. Ergogenic aids such as alkaline salts, caffeine, carbohydrate and protein have been used by athletes with variable success. As nutritionists and exercise physiologists discovered and perfected the scientific understanding of metabolic reactions, athletes in turn experimented with the amount, form and timing of administration in the search for optimal performance. Anabolic steroids and blood doping enhance athletic performance, but health risks, ethics and sportsmanship contravene their use. Popularity and use of ergogenic aids often have preceded scientific substantiation of claims. Current products such as protein isolates and antioxidant nutrients commonly are used by athletes, and many ergogenic aids available today differ little from those used long ago.

Food-related behaviors during drought: a study of rural Fulani, northeastern Nigeria.

Two rural settled Fulani villages in northeast Nigeria were surveyed for dietary practices and use of edible wild plants (n = 100 adult subjects). Dietary patterns and medical data were obtained for children under 5, pregnant and lactating women and the elderly. A diversified diet was maintained at both geographical locations through hunting, gathering, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, food exchanges and cash purchases. Edible wild plants associated with children included fruits of baure (Ficus sycomorus), faru (Lannea schiniperi), giginya (Gardenia aqualla), kokiya (Strychnos spinosa) and nunu (Parinari curatellitolia). Leaves of shiwaka (Veronia colorate) were consumed by lactating women to stimulate breastmilk production. Generally, fruits of baure (Ficus sycomorus) were eaten to counter stomach pain; fruits of kisni (Bridelia ferruginea) were eaten to treat diarrhea; and bark of kuka (Adansonia digitata) was consumed for weight gain. Food storage was more important during wet seasons than dry because of local and regional flooding. Adult Fulani men rode to distant markets on bicycles, while women walked to market and in some instances expended 3200 kcal/day engaging in this activity.

Energy and micronutrient composition of dietary and medicinal wild plants consumed during drought. Study of rural Fulani, northeastern Nigeria.

Two rural settled Fulani villages, northeastern Nigeria, were surveyed for dietary practices and use of edible wild plants (n = 100 households). Commonly consumed species of edible wild barks, fruits, leaves, nuts, seeds, and tubers were analyzed for protein, fat, and carbohydrate and for minerals. Kuka bark (Adansonia digitata) given to infants to increase weight gain was high in fat, calcium, copper, iron, and zinc. Cediya (Ficus thonningii), dorowa (Parkia biglobosa) and zogale (Moringa oleifera) were good sources of protein and fat and excellent sources of calcium and iron or copper and zinc. Fruits, leaves, and nuts of aduwa (Balanites aegyptiaca) were widely used during the dry season and during drought. Edible wild species available during the wet season generally were inferior in energy and micronutrient mineral content compared to dry season plants. Fruits commonly eaten by children were poor sources of protein and minerals but rich in carbohydrate and fiber. Tsamiya seeds (Tamarindus indica) were good sources of zinc and used to make dawwa (porridge) commonly consumed during pregnancy. Kirya seeds (Prosopos africana) contained the highest zinc concentrations. Shiwaka leaves (Veronia colorate) consumed by pregnant women to increase breastmilk production and to expel intestinal worms, were high in fiber, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and were adequate sources of calcium.

Threads of cultural nutrition: arts and humanities.

Cultural nutrition encompasses a wide sweep of food-related themes within three major categories: arts and humanities, social sciences, and biological-natural sciences. The paper, first of three, considers the arts and humanities. Topics include food and diet expressed through art, film, music, and dance. The essay then examines food and diet in representative works of literature, both ancient and modern. The place of food and diet within folklore, mythology, and religion is treated, with consideration of symbolic roles played by food throughout the human life cycle, especially with birth and infancy, coming-of-age, marriage, and death. Religion, a major theme in cultural nutrition, is explored and the food-dietary patterns of Jews, Christians, Moslems, Hindus, and Shintos are treated. Ethics and philosophy are examined as both relate to programs of international food relief and vegetarianism. The essay concludes with a review of work by historians, especially themes of famine and approaches taken to refeed populations during combat and hostilities.

Mineral values of selected plant foods common to southern Burkina Faso and to Niamey, Niger, west Africa.

Wild and cultivated fruits, leaves, nuts, seeds, spices and vegetables from southern Burkina Faso and Niamey, Niger, were analysed for their copper, iron, magnesium, manganese and zinc concentrations and compared to imported, exotic reference foods found within the study area. The species analysed covered a broad spectrum of local diet; 33 were wild and 16 were cultivated. The edible wild plants were often the highest in mineral concentrations. Five species analysed, exhibited consistently high mineral values, specifically, Adansonia digitata, Boerhavia diffusa, Cerathoteca sesamoides, Sclerocarya birrea and Xylopia sp. The latter was particularly high in zinc, an observation which suggests that there may be a solid rationale for local traditions which recommended its consumption during pregnancy and lactation. Respondents indicated that during times of drought, wild plants were not consumed in the volume they once were, due to changes of infrastructure and in famine relief programmes.

Influence of thiamin supplementation on the health and general well-being of an elderly Irish population with marginal thiamin deficiency.

The effect of thiamin supplementation on the health and general well-being of 80 randomly selected healthy elderly Irish women, from a population with marginal thiamin deficiency, was studied. Key variables affecting thiamin status were controlled. Weekly dietary intakes, subjective feelings, and activity assessments were measured during a 4-week baseline and 6-week double blind treatment period. Clinical assessments were performed during the last week of each period. For treatment, subjects were randomly assigned to either thiamin (10 mg daily) or placebo groups. Compared to baseline and placebo supplemented values, thiamin-supplemented women experienced significantly increased appetite, energy intake, body weight and general well-being, and decreased fatigue. Thiamin supplementation also tended to reduce daytime sleep time, improve sleep patterns, and increase activity. These data suggest that evaluation of thiamin status is indicated when nonspecific conditions such as anorexia, weight loss, fatigue, depression, and sleep disorders are present in elderly persons.

Inorganic constituents of breast milk from vegetarian and nonvegetarian women: relationships with each other and with organic constituents.

Changes in concentrations of minerals, trace elements, protein, lactose and total lipids during 20 mo of lactation and correlations between levels of these milk constituents were studied in a carefully defined set of 222 milk samples collected from 52 women, one-half of whom were vegetarians. Milk samples from vegetarians and those from nonvegetarians contained similar levels of iron, copper, zinc, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, lactose and fat. Following a brief but sharp initial decrease, levels of protein and iron did not change significantly between mo 2 and 20 of lactation. Levels of zinc, copper, sodium and potassium declined for the first 6 mo of lactation. Levels of lipid, sodium and zinc increased during later months of lactation while that of calcium decreased. Levels of lactose, copper, potassium and magnesium remained unchanged during mo 7-20. Stepwise multiple regression analysis showed positive correlations between levels of three pairs of inorganic constituents during the first 6 mo of lactation: copper and zinc, copper and potassium, and potassium and calcium. During the subsequent 14 mo of lactation, potassium was correlated with copper. The level of iron was positively correlated with that of lipid, while that of calcium was negatively correlated with that of lipid. These relationships, and others reported in the paper, are discussed in relation to current hypotheses of the mechanism of milk secretion and the binding of inorganic to organic milk constituents.