Under-Appreciated Phylogroup Diversity of Escherichia coli within and between Animals at the Urban-Wildland Interface.

Wild animals have been implicated as reservoirs and even "melting pots" of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria of concern to human health. Though Escherichia coli is common among vertebrate guts and plays a role in the propagation of such genetic information, few studies have explored its diversity beyond humans nor the ecological factors that influence its diversity and distribution in wild animals. We characterized an average of 20 E. coli isolates per scat sample (n = 84) from a community of 14 wild and 3 domestic species. The phylogeny of E. coli comprises 8 phylogroups that are differentially associated with pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance, and we uncovered all of them in one small biological preserve surrounded by intense human activity. Challenging previous assumptions that a single isolate is representative of within-host phylogroup diversity, 57% of individual animals sampled carried multiple phylogroups simultaneously. Host species' phylogroup richness saturated at different levels across species and encapsulated vast within-sample and within-species variation, indicating that distribution patterns are influenced both by isolation source and laboratory sampling depth. Using ecological methods that ensure statistical relevance, we identify trends in phylogroup prevalence associated with host and environmental factors. The vast genetic diversity and broad distribution of E. coli in wildlife populations has implications for biodiversity conservation, agriculture, and public health, as well as for gauging unknown risks at the urban-wildland interface. We propose critical directions for future studies of the "wild side" of E. coli that will expand our understanding of its ecology and evolution beyond the human environment. IMPORTANCE To our knowledge, neither the phylogroup diversity of E. coli within individual wild animals nor that within an interacting multispecies community have previously been assessed. In doing so, we uncovered the globally known phylogroup diversity from an animal community on a preserve imbedded in a human-dominated landscape. We revealed that the phylogroup composition in domestic animals differed greatly from that in their wild counterparts, implying potential human impacts on the domestic animal gut. Significantly, many wild individuals hosted multiple phylogroups simultaneously, indicating the potential for strain-mixing and zoonotic spillback, especially as human encroachment into wildlands increases in the Anthropocene. We reason that due to extensive anthropogenic environmental contamination, wildlife is increasingly exposed to our waste, including E. coli and antibiotics. The gaps in the ecological and evolutionary understanding of E. coli thus necessitate a significant uptick in research to better understand human impacts on wildlife and the risk for zoonotic pathogen emergence.

Witnessing history: comparison of a century of sedimentary and written records in a California protected area.

We use a combination of proxy records from a high-resolution analysis of sediments from Searsville Lake and adjacent Upper Lake Marsh and historical records to document over one and a half centuries of vegetation and socio-ecological change-relating to logging, agricultural land use change, dam construction, chemical applications, recreation, and other drivers-on the San Francisco Peninsula. A relatively open vegetation with minimal oak (Quercus) and coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) in the late 1850s reflects widespread logging and grazing during the nineteenth century. Forest and woodland expansion occurred in the early twentieth century, with forests composed of coast redwood and oak, among other taxa, as both logging and grazing declined. Invasive species include those associated with pasturage (Rume x, Plantago), landscape disturbance (Urtica, Amaranthaceae), planting for wood production and wind barriers (Eucalyptus), and agriculture. Agricultural species, including wheat, rye, and corn, were more common in the early twentieth century than subsequently. Wetland and aquatic pollen and fungal spores document a complex hydrological history, often associated with fluctuating water levels, application of algaecides, raising of Searsville Dam, and construction of a levee. By pairing the paleoecological and historical records of both lakes, we have been able to reconstruct the previously undocumented impacts of socio-ecological influences on this drainage, all of which overprinted known climate changes. Recognizing the ecological manifestations of these impacts puts into perspective the extent to which people have interacted with and transformed the environment in the transition into the Anthropocene. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10113-023-02056-9.

Post-invasion demography of prehistoric humans in South America.

As the last habitable continent colonized by humans, the site of multiple domestication hotspots, and the location of the largest Pleistocene megafaunal extinction, South America is central to human prehistory. Yet remarkably little is known about human population dynamics during colonization, subsequent expansions, and domestication. Here we reconstruct the spatiotemporal patterns of human population growth in South America using a newly aggregated database of 1,147 archaeological sites and 5,464 calibrated radiocarbon dates spanning fourteen thousand to two thousand years ago (ka). We demonstrate that, rather than a steady exponential expansion, the demographic history of South Americans is characterized by two distinct phases. First, humans spread rapidly throughout the continent, but remained at low population sizes for 8,000 years, including a 4,000-year period of 'boom-and-bust' oscillations with no net growth. Supplementation of hunting with domesticated crops and animals had a minimal impact on population carrying capacity. Only with widespread sedentism, beginning ~5 ka, did a second demographic phase begin, with evidence for exponential population growth in cultural hotspots, characteristic of the Neolithic transition worldwide. The unique extent of humanity's ability to modify its environment to markedly increase carrying capacity in South America is therefore an unexpectedly recent phenomenon.

The under-investigated wild side of Escherichia coli: genetic diversity, pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance in wild animals.

A striking paucity of information exists on Escherichia coli in wild animals despite evidence that they harbour pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant E. coli in their gut microbiomes and may even serve as melting pots for novel genetic combinations potentially harmful to human health. Wild animals have been implicated as the source of pathogenic E. coli outbreaks in agricultural production, but a lack of knowledge surrounding the genetics of E. coli in wild animals complicates source tracking and thus contamination curtailment efforts. As human populations continue to expand and invade wild areas, the potential for harmful microorganisms to transfer between humans and wildlife increases. Here, we conducted a literature review of the small body of work on E. coli in wild animals. We highlight the geographic and host taxonomic coverage to date, and in each, identify significant gaps. We summarize the current understanding of E. coli in wild animals, including its genetic diversity, host and geographic distribution, and transmission pathways within and between wild animal and human populations. The knowledge gaps we identify call for greater research efforts to understand the existence of E. coli in wild animals, especially in light of the potentially strong implications for global public health.

Long live the king: chromosome-level assembly of the lion (Panthera leo) using linked-read, Hi-C, and long-read data.

BACKGROUND: The lion (Panthera leo) is one of the most popular and iconic feline species on the planet, yet in spite of its popularity, the last century has seen massive declines for lion populations worldwide. Genomic resources for endangered species represent an important way forward for the field of conservation, enabling high-resolution studies of demography, disease, and population dynamics. Here, we present a chromosome-level assembly from a captive African lion from the Exotic Feline Rescue Center (Center Point, IN) as a resource for current and subsequent genetic work of the sole social species of the Panthera clade. RESULTS: Our assembly is composed of 10x Genomics Chromium data, Dovetail Hi-C, and Oxford Nanopore long-read data. Synteny is highly conserved between the lion, other Panthera genomes, and the domestic cat. We find variability in the length of runs of homozygosity across lion genomes, indicating contrasting histories of recent and possibly intense inbreeding and bottleneck events. Demographic analyses reveal similar ancient histories across all individuals during the Pleistocene except the Asiatic lion, which shows a more rapid decline in population size. We show a substantial influence on the reference genome choice in the inference of demographic history and heterozygosity. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrate that the choice of reference genome is important when comparing heterozygosity estimates across species and those inferred from different references should not be compared to each other. In addition, estimates of heterozygosity or the amount or length of runs of homozygosity should not be taken as reflective of a species, as these can differ substantially among individuals. This high-quality genome will greatly aid in the continuing research and conservation efforts for the lion, which is rapidly moving towards becoming a species in danger of extinction.

A comparison of eDNA to camera trapping for assessment of terrestrial mammal diversity.

Before environmental DNA (eDNA) can establish itself as a robust tool for biodiversity monitoring, comparison with existing approaches is necessary, yet is lacking for terrestrial mammals. Moreover, much is unknown regarding the nature, spread and persistence of DNA shed by animals into terrestrial environments, or the optimal experimental design for understanding these potential biases. To address some of these challenges, we compared the detection of terrestrial mammals using eDNA analysis of soil samples against confirmed species observations from a long-term (approx. 9-year) camera-trapping study. At the same time, we considered multiple experimental parameters, including two sampling designs, two DNA extraction kits and two metabarcodes of different sizes. All mammals regularly recorded with cameras were detected in eDNA. In addition, eDNA reported many unrecorded small mammals whose presence in the study area is otherwise documented. A long metabarcode (≈220 bp) offering a high taxonomic resolution, achieved a similar efficiency as a shorter one (≈70 bp) and a phosphate buffer-based extraction gave similar results as a total DNA extraction method, for a fraction of the price. Our results support that eDNA-based monitoring should become a valuable part of ecosystem surveys, yet mitochondrial reference databases need to be enriched first.

Predicting biodiversity change and averting collapse in agricultural landscapes.

The equilibrium theory of island biogeography is the basis for estimating extinction rates and a pillar of conservation science. The default strategy for conserving biodiversity is the designation of nature reserves, treated as islands in an inhospitable sea of human activity. Despite the profound influence of islands on conservation theory and practice, their mainland analogues, forest fragments in human-dominated landscapes, consistently defy expected biodiversity patterns based on island biogeography theory. Countryside biogeography is an alternative framework, which recognizes that the fate of the world's wildlife will be decided largely by the hospitality of agricultural or countryside ecosystems. Here we directly test these biogeographic theories by comparing a Neotropical countryside ecosystem with a nearby island ecosystem, and show that each supports similar bat biodiversity in fundamentally different ways. The island ecosystem conforms to island biogeographic predictions of bat species loss, in which the water matrix is not habitat. In contrast, the countryside ecosystem has high species richness and evenness across forest reserves and smaller forest fragments. Relative to forest reserves and fragments, deforested countryside habitat supports a less species-rich, yet equally even, bat assemblage. Moreover, the bat assemblage associated with deforested habitat is compositionally novel because of predictable changes in abundances by many species using human-made habitat. Finally, we perform a global meta-analysis of bat biogeographic studies, spanning more than 700 species. It generalizes our findings, showing that separate biogeographic theories for countryside and island ecosystems are necessary. A theory of countryside biogeography is essential to conservation strategy in the agricultural ecosystems that comprise roughly half of the global land surface and are likely to increase even further.

Variable impact of late-Quaternary megafaunal extinction in causing ecological state shifts in North and South America.

Loss of megafauna, an aspect of defaunation, can precipitate many ecological changes over short time scales. We examine whether megafauna loss can also explain features of lasting ecological state shifts that occurred as the Pleistocene gave way to the Holocene. We compare ecological impacts of late-Quaternary megafauna extinction in five American regions: southwestern Patagonia, the Pampas, northeastern United States, northwestern United States, and Beringia. We find that major ecological state shifts were consistent with expectations of defaunation in North American sites but not in South American ones. The differential responses highlight two factors necessary for defaunation to trigger lasting ecological state shifts discernable in the fossil record: (i) lost megafauna need to have been effective ecosystem engineers, like proboscideans; and (ii) historical contingencies must have provided the ecosystem with plant species likely to respond to megafaunal loss. These findings help in identifying modern ecosystems that are most at risk for disappearing should current pressures on the ecosystems' large animals continue and highlight the critical role of both individual species ecologies and ecosystem context in predicting the lasting impacts of defaunation currently underway.

Approaching a state shift in Earth's biosphere.

Localized ecological systems are known to shift abruptly and irreversibly from one state to another when they are forced across critical thresholds. Here we review evidence that the global ecosystem as a whole can react in the same way and is approaching a planetary-scale critical transition as a result of human influence. The plausibility of a planetary-scale 'tipping point' highlights the need to improve biological forecasting by detecting early warning signs of critical transitions on global as well as local scales, and by detecting feedbacks that promote such transitions. It is also necessary to address root causes of how humans are forcing biological changes.

Phylogeny, Traits, and Biodiversity of a Neotropical Bat Assemblage: Close Relatives Show Similar Responses to Local Deforestation.

If species' evolutionary pasts predetermine their responses to evolutionarily novel stressors, then phylogeny could predict species survival in an increasingly human-dominated world. To understand the role of phylogenetic relatedness in structuring responses to rapid environmental change, we focused on assemblages of Neotropical bats, an ecologically diverse and functionally important group. We examined how taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity shift between tropical forest and farmland. We then explored the importance of evolutionary history by ascertaining whether close relatives share similar responses to environmental change and which species traits might mediate these trends. We analyzed a 5-year data set (5,011 captures) from 18 sites in a countryside landscape in southern Costa Rica using statistical models that account and correct for imperfect detection of species across sites, spatial autocorrelation, and consideration of spatial scale. Taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity decreased with deforestation, and assemblages became more phylogenetically clustered. Species' responses to deforestation were strongly phylogenetically correlated. Body mass and absolute wing loading explained a substantial portion of species variation in species' habitat preferences, likely related to these traits' influence on maneuverability in cluttered forest environments. Our findings highlight the role that evolutionary history plays in determining which species will survive human impacts and the need to consider diversity metrics, evolutionary history, and traits together when making predictions about species persistence for conservation or ecosystem functioning.

Genetics, morphology and ecology reveal a cryptic pika lineage in the Sikkim Himalaya.

Asian pika species are morphologically ∼similar and have overlapping ranges. This leads to uncertainty and species misidentification in the field. Phylogenetic analyses of such misidentified samples leads to taxonomic ambiguity. The ecology of many pika species remains understudied, particularly in the Himalaya, where sympatric species could be separated by elevation and/or substrate. We sampled, measured, and acquired genetic data from pikas in the Sikkim Himalaya. Our analyses revealed a cryptic lineage, Ochotona sikimaria, previously reported as a subspecies of O. thibetana. The results support the elevation of this lineage to the species level, as it is genetically divergent from O. thibetana, as well as sister species, O. cansus (endemic to central China) and O. curzoniae (endemic to the Tibetan plateau). The Sikkim lineage diverged from its sister species' about 1.7-0.8myrago, coincident with uplift events in the Himalaya. Our results add to the recent spate of cryptic diversity identified from the eastern Himalaya and highlight the need for further study within the Ochotonidae.

Frequency shifting reduces but does not eliminate acoustic interference between echolocating bats: A theoretical analysis.

Bats have been observed to shift the frequency of their echolocation calls in the presence of other echolocating bats, ostensibly as a way to reduce acoustic interference. Few studies, however, have examined the theoretical efficacy of such jamming avoidance responses. The present study uses the wideband ambiguity function to analyze the effects of acoustic interference from conspecifics and congeneric heterospecifics on the target acquisition ability of Myotis californicus and Myotis yumanensis, specifically whether unilateral or bilateral frequency shifts reduce the effects of such interference. Model results suggest that in conspecific interactions, M. yumanensis recovers its target acquisition ability more completely and with less absolute frequency shift than does M. californicus, but that alternative methods of jamming avoidance may be easier to implement. The optimal strategy for reducing heterospecific interference is for M. californicus to downshift its call and M. yumanensis to upshift its call, which exaggerates a preexisting difference in mean frequency between the calls of the two species. Further empirical research would elucidate whether these species do in practice actively employ frequency shifting or other means for jamming avoidance, as well as illuminate the role of acoustic interference in niche partitioning.

Getting a head in hard soils: Convergent skull evolution and divergent allometric patterns explain shape variation in a highly diverse genus of pocket gophers (Thomomys).

BACKGROUND: High morphological diversity can occur in closely related animals when selection favors morphologies that are subject to intrinsic biological constraints. A good example is subterranean rodents of the genus Thomomys, one of the most taxonomically and morphologically diverse mammalian genera. Highly procumbent, tooth-digging rodent skull shapes are often geometric consequences of increased body size. Indeed, larger-bodied Thomomys species tend to inhabit harder soils. We used geometric morphometric analyses to investigate the interplay between soil hardness (the main extrinsic selection pressure on fossorial mammals) and allometry (i.e. shape change due to size change; generally considered the main intrinsic factor) on crania and humeri in this fast-evolving mammalian clade. RESULTS: Larger Thomomys species/subspecies tend to have more procumbent cranial shapes with some exceptions, including a small-bodied species inhabiting hard soils. Counter to earlier suggestions, cranial shape within Thomomys does not follow a genus-wide allometric pattern as even regional subpopulations differ in allometric slopes. In contrast, humeral shape varies less with body size and with soil hardness. Soft-soil taxa have larger humeral muscle attachment sites but retain an orthodont (non-procumbent) cranial morphology. In intermediate soils, two pairs of sister taxa diverge through differential modifications on either the humerus or the cranium. In the hardest soils, both humeral and cranial morphology are derived through large muscle attachment sites and a high degree of procumbency. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that conflict between morphological function and intrinsic allometric patterning can quickly and differentially alter the rodent skeleton, especially the skull. In addition, we found a new case of convergent evolution of incisor procumbency among large-, medium-, and small-sized species inhabiting hard soils. This occurs through different combinations of allometric and non-allometric changes, contributing to shape diversity within the genus. The strong influence of allometry on cranial shape appears to confirm suggestions that developmental change underlies mammalian cranial shape divergences, but this requires confirmation from ontogenetic studies. Our findings illustrate how a variety of intrinsic processes, resulting in species-level convergence, could sustain a genus-level range across a variety of extrinsic environments. This might represent a mechanism for observations of genus-level niche conservation despite species extinctions in mammals.

Climate change and habitat conversion favour the same species.

Land-use change and climate change are driving a global biodiversity crisis. Yet, how species' responses to climate change are correlated with their responses to land-use change is poorly understood. Here, we assess the linkages between climate and land-use change on birds in Neotropical forest and agriculture. Across > 300 species, we show that affiliation with drier climates is associated with an ability to persist in and colonise agriculture. Further, species shift their habitat use along a precipitation gradient: species prefer forest in drier regions, but use agriculture more in wetter zones. Finally, forest-dependent species that avoid agriculture are most likely to experience decreases in habitable range size if current drying trends in the Neotropics continue as predicted. This linkage suggests a synergy between the primary drivers of biodiversity loss. Because they favour the same species, climate and land-use change will likely homogenise biodiversity more severely than otherwise anticipated.

Small mammal diversity loss in response to late-Pleistocene climatic change.

Communities have been shaped in numerous ways by past climatic change; this process continues today. At the end of the Pleistocene epoch about 11,700 years ago, North American communities were substantially altered by the interplay of two events. The climate shifted from the cold, arid Last Glacial Maximum to the warm, mesic Holocene interglacial, causing many mammal species to shift their geographic distributions substantially. Populations were further stressed as humans arrived on the continent. The resulting megafaunal extinction event, in which 70 of the roughly 220 largest mammals in North America (32%) became extinct, has received much attention. However, responses of small mammals to events at the end of the Pleistocene have been much less studied, despite the sensitivity of these animals to current and future environmental change. Here we examine community changes in small mammals in northern California during the last 'natural' global warming event at the Pleistocene-Holocene transition and show that even though no small mammals in the local community became extinct, species losses and gains, combined with changes in abundance, caused declines in both the evenness and richness of communities. Modern mammalian communities are thus depauperate not only as a result of megafaunal extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene but also because of diversity loss among small mammals. Our results suggest that across future landscapes there will be some unanticipated effects of global change on diversity: restructuring of small mammal communities, significant loss of richness, and perhaps the rising dominance of native 'weedy' species.

Thermal niche predicts tolerance to habitat conversion in tropical amphibians and reptiles.

Habitat conversion is a major driver of the biodiversity crisis, yet why some species undergo local extinction while others thrive under novel conditions remains unclear. We suggest that focusing on species' niches, rather than traits, may provide the predictive power needed to forecast biodiversity change. We first examine two Neotropical frog congeners with drastically different affinities to deforestation and document how thermal niche explains deforestation tolerance. The more deforestation-tolerant species is associated with warmer macroclimates across Costa Rica, and warmer microclimates within landscapes. Further, in laboratory experiments, the more deforestation-tolerant species has critical thermal limits, and a jumping performance optimum, shifted ~2 °C warmer than those of the more forest-affiliated species, corresponding to the ~3 °C difference in daytime maximum temperature that these species experience between habitats. Crucially, neither species strictly specializes on either habitat - instead habitat use is governed by regional environmental temperature. Both species track temperature along an elevational gradient, and shift their habitat use from cooler forest at lower elevations to warmer deforested pastures upslope. To generalize these conclusions, we expand our analysis to the entire mid-elevational herpetological community of southern Costa Rica. We assess the climatological affinities of 33 amphibian and reptile species, showing that across both taxonomic classes, thermal niche predicts presence in deforested habitat as well as or better than many commonly used traits. These data suggest that warm-adapted species carry a significant survival advantage amidst the synergistic impacts of land-use conversion and climate change.

A call for tiger management using "reserves" of genetic diversity.

Tigers (Panthera tigris), like many large carnivores, are threatened by anthropogenic impacts, primarily habitat loss and poaching. Current conservation plans for tigers focus on population expansion, with the goal of doubling census size in the next 10 years. Previous studies have shown that because the demographic decline was recent, tiger populations still retain a large amount of genetic diversity. Although maintaining this diversity is extremely important to avoid deleterious effects of inbreeding, management plans have yet to consider predictive genetic models. We used coalescent simulations based on previously sequenced mitochondrial fragments (n = 125) from 5 of 6 extant subspecies to predict the population growth needed to maintain current genetic diversity over the next 150 years. We found that the level of gene flow between populations has a large effect on the local population growth necessary to maintain genetic diversity, without which tigers may face decreases in fitness. In the absence of gene flow, we demonstrate that maintaining genetic diversity is impossible based on known demographic parameters for the species. Thus, managing for the genetic diversity of the species should be prioritized over the riskier preservation of distinct subspecies. These predictive simulations provide unique management insights, hitherto not possible using existing analytical methods.

Impressive pan-genomic diversity of E. coli from a wild animal community near urban development reflects human impacts.

Human and domesticated animal waste infiltrates global freshwater, terrestrial, and marine environments, widely disseminating fecal microbes, antibiotics, and other chemical pollutants. Emerging evidence suggests that guts of wild animals are being invaded by our microbes, including Escherichia coli, which face anthropogenic selective pressures to gain antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and increase virulence. However, wild animal sources remain starkly under-represented among genomic sequence repositories. We sequenced whole genomes of 145 E. coli isolates from 55 wild and 13 domestic animal fecal samples, averaging 2 (ranging 1-7) isolates per sample, on a preserve imbedded in a human-dominated landscape in California Bay Area, USA, to assess AMR, virulence, and pan-genomic diversity. With single nucleotide polymorphism analyses we predict potential transmission routes. We illustrate the usefulness of E. coli to aid our understanding of and ability to surveil the emergence of zoonotic pathogens created by the mixing of human and wild bacteria in the environment.