Examining the influence of social-environmental variables on self-injurious behaviour in adolescent boys with fragile X syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common known inherited form of intellectual disability, are at increased risk for showing specific forms of self-injurious behaviour (SIB) such as hand biting and head hitting, suggesting that biological factors associated with the syndrome confers increased risk for SIB. Few studies, however, have examined the extent to which social-environmental variables can influence the occurrence of these behaviours in this population. METHOD: Twenty-two adolescent boys with FXS, aged 10 to 18 years were systematically exposed to seven environmental conditions in functional analyses of SIB conducted over 2 days at our research centre. RESULTS: Fourteen (63.6%) boys with FXS engaged in SIB during the functional analyses. Ten (45.5%) boys engaged in SIB that was maintained by social-environmental variables, that is, gaining access to attention/tangibles and/or escaping from social interaction, task demands and/or transition demands. For two boys, SIB was undifferentiated across conditions, and for two boys, SIB appeared to be maintained by automatic reinforcement. CONCLUSIONS: Social-environmental variables appeared to maintain SIB in a significant proportion of boys with FXS. Given that pharmacological treatments for SIB have limited efficacy in this population, the potential role of social-environmental factors on SIB should be examined before pharmacological treatments are implemented for these behaviours.

Problem behaviour in adolescent boys with fragile X syndrome: relative prevalence, frequency and severity.

BACKGROUND: A large proportion of boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common known inherited form of intellectual disability (ID), exhibit problem behaviours (e.g. aggression, self-injury, property destruction and stereotypy) that can negatively impact the health and safety of others as well as the individual concerned. However, data are limited concerning the relative prevalence, frequency and severity of problem behaviours exhibited by boys with FXS compared with those by boys with mixed-aetiology ID who also exhibit problem behaviours. METHOD: As part of a larger study on problem behaviour, we obtained survey data on 85 adolescent boys with FXS and 155 age-matched boys with mixed-aetiology ID who exhibited at least one form of problem behaviour. RESULTS: For boys with FXS, stereotypy was reported to be more prevalent (χ2 = 4.52, P = 0.012), self-injury was reported to more frequent (U = 2525, P = 0.010) and aggression was reported to be less severe (U = 4176, P = 0.029) than for boys with mixed-aetiology ID. Ratings of aggression and property destruction were highly correlated in each group in terms of both frequency and severity (r = 0.60 to 0.71). Examination of the data by age indicated that the relative frequency of self-injury decreased with age in boys with FXS (χ2 = 8.29, P = 0.040). CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results refine and extend previous studies concerning the specificity of the behavioural phenotype in FXS and indicate that specific forms of problem behaviour shown by boys with FXS appear to differ from those exhibited by boys with mixed-aetiology ID in terms of prevalence, frequency and severity. Studies employing more objective measures of frequency and severity, including direct observations, are needed to confirm these findings.

A 'learning platform' approach to outcome measurement in fragile X syndrome: a preliminary psychometric study.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials of medications to alleviate the cognitive and behavioural symptoms of individuals with fragile X syndrome (FXS) are now underway. However, there are few reliable, valid and/or sensitive outcome measures available that can be directly administered to individuals with FXS. The majority of assessments employed in clinical trials may be suboptimal for individuals with intellectual disability (ID) because they require face-to-face interaction with an examiner, taxing administration periods, and do not provide reinforcement and/or feedback during the test. We therefore examined the psychometric properties of a new computerised 'learning platform' approach to outcome measurement in FXS. METHOD: A brief computerised test, incorporated into the Discrete Trial Trainer©- a commercially available software program designed for children with ID - was administered to 13 girls with FXS, 12 boys with FXS and 15 matched ID controls aged 10 to 23 years (mental age = 4 to 12 years). The software delivered automated contingent access to reinforcement, feedback, token delivery and prompting procedures (if necessary) on each trial to facilitate responding. The primary outcome measure was the participant's learning rate, derived from the participant's cumulative record of correct responses. RESULTS: All participants were able to complete the test and floor effects appeared to be minimal. Learning rates averaged approximately five correct responses per minute, ranging from one to eight correct responses per minute in each group. Test-retest reliability of the learning rates was 0.77 for girls with FXS, 0.90 for boys with FXS and 0.90 for matched ID controls. Concurrent validity with raw scores obtained on the Arithmetic subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III was 0.35 for girls with FXS, 0.80 for boys with FXS and 0.56 for matched ID controls. The learning rates were also highly sensitive to change, with effect sizes of 1.21, 0.89 and 1.47 in each group respectively following 15 to 20, 15-min sessions of intensive discrete trial training conducted over 1.5 days. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a learning platform approach to outcome measurement could provide investigators with a reliable, valid and highly sensitive measure to evaluate treatment efficacy, not only for individuals with FXS but also for individuals with other ID.

Self-injurious behaviour in Cornelia de Lange syndrome: 2. Association with environmental events.

BACKGROUND: Self-injurious behaviour is commonly seen in Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS). However, there has been limited research into the aetiology of self-injury in CdLS and whether environmental factors influence the behaviour. METHODS: We observed the self-injury of 27 individuals with CdLS and 17 participants who did not have CdLS matched for age, gender, level of intellectual disability and mobility. Descriptive analyses were used to determine the extent to which environmental events were associated with self-injury. RESULTS: Lag sequential analysis of the association between self-injurious behaviour and environmental events revealed no differences between the two groups in terms of either the number or degree of environmental associations. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that the associations between the environment and self-injury in CdLS do not differ from those seen in the broader population of people with intellectual disability. By implication the social reinforcement hypothesis is equally applicable to both groups.

Health and sleep problems in Cornelia de Lange Syndrome: a case control study.

BACKGROUND: Self-injury, sleep problems and health problems are commonly reported in Cornelia de Lange Syndrome (CdLS) but there are no comparisons with appropriately matched participants. The relationship between these areas and comparison to a control group is warranted. METHOD: 54 individuals with CdLS were compared with 46 participants with intellectual disability (ID) of mixed aetiology who were similar in terms of degree of ID, mobility, age and gender using informant-based measures of health problems, sleep and self-injury. RESULTS: Participants with CdLS experienced significantly more current and lifetime health problems with eye problems and gastrointestinal disorders prominent. Although 55% of those with CdLS experienced sleep problems this prevalence was not different from the comparison group. Sleep disorder was not associated with self-injury in the CdLS group, skin problems were associated with severity of self-injury but not presence. DISCUSSION: People with CdLS experience a range of significant health problems and have more health concerns than others with the same degree of ID. Although this has been well documented in the past, the current high prevalence of health concerns indicates the need for regular health assessment and appropriate intervention.

Structure-activity relationships of synthetic antibiotic analogues of anisomycin.

A general synthetic sequence was used to synthesize a series of analogues of anisomycin, and the biological activities of the new synthetic analogues as antiprotozoals, antifungals, and antibacterials were evaluated. The synthetic antibiotics included 3 beta-acetoxy-4 alpha-hydroxy-2 beta-(p-methylbenzyl)pyrrolidine (1b), 3 beta-acetoxy-2 beta-benzyl-4 alpha-hydroxypyrrolidine (1c), 3 beta-acetoxy-4 alpha-hydroxy-2 beta-(m-methoxybenzyl)pyrrolidine (1d), 3 beta-acetoxy-4 alpha-hydroxy-2 beta-(o-methoxybenzyl)pyrrolidine (1e), 3 beta-acetoxy-4 alpha-hydroxy-2 beta-(alpha-methyl-p-methoxybenzyl)pyrrolidine (1f), and 3 beta-acetoxy-4 alpha-hydroxy-2 beta-(alpha-phenyl-p-methoxybenzyl)pyrrolidine (1g). The anisomycin analogues showed activity against protozoa and fungi, but this activity was restricted primarily to the p-methylbenzyl and benzyl analogues 1b and 1c. The activities dropped dramatically as the methoxy substituent was moved to the meta or ortho positions of the benzyl group (1d and 1e) or a methyl or phenyl group was attached at the alpha-benzyl carbon (1f and 1g).

Synthesis and evaluation of alpha-hydroxythiol esters as antitumor agents and glyoxalase I inhibitors.

Synthesis of a series of alpha-hydroxythiol esters made available, for the first time, product-like molecules that were evaluated as inhibitors of the enzyme glyoxalase I and as potential antitumor agents. All the alpha-hydroxythiol esters tested were competitive inhibitors of the enzyme, albeit weak; however, the relative [I]50 values suggested information about the active site. Antileukemic activity in L1210 lymphoid leukemia indicated no significant activity by these alpha-hydroxythiol esters.

The principal components of response strength.

As Skinner (1938) described it, response strength is the "state of the reflex with respect to all its static properties" (p. 15), which include response rate, latency, probability, and persistence. The relations of those measures to one another was analyzed by probabilistically reinforcing, satiating, and extinguishing pigeons' key pecking in a trials paradigm. Reinforcement was scheduled according to variable-interval, variable-ratio, and fixed-interval contingencies. Principal components analysis permitted description in terms of a single latent variable, strength, and this was validated with confirmatory factor analyses. Overall response rate was an excellent predictor of this state variable.

Using sign language with tracheotomized infants and children.

Children's ability to communicate with others is important for cognitive development. However, the number of infants and young children deprived of vocalization (aphonia) is increasing in the pediatric patient population due to tracheotomy. The Communication Program for Infants and Parents (CPIP) uses sign language as an alternative system to verbal communication.