Sex Differences in Cardiovascular Disease-Related Hospitalization and Mortality in Japan　- Analysis of Health Records From a Nationwide Claim-Based Database, the Japanese Registry of All Cardiac and Vascular Disease (JROAD).

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is rising in Japan with its aging population, but there is a lack of epidemiological data on sex differences in CVD, including acute coronary syndrome (ACS), acute heart failure (AHF), and acute aortic disease.Methods and Results: This retrospective study analyzed data from 1,349,017 patients (January 2012-December 2020) using the Japanese Registry Of All Cardiac and Vascular Diseases database. ACS patients were youngest on average (70.5±12.9 years) and had the lowest female proportion (28.9%). AHF patients had the oldest mean age (79.7±12.0 years) and the highest proportion of females (48.0%). Acute aortic disease had the highest in-hospital mortality (26.1%), followed by AHF (11.5%) and ACS (8.9%). Sex-based mortality differences were notable in acute aortic disease, with higher male mortality in Stanford Type A acute aortic dissection (AAD) with surgery (males: 14.2% vs. females: 10.4%, P<0.001) and similar rates in Type B AAD (males: 6.2% vs. females: 7.9%, P=0.52). Aging was a universal risk factor for in-hospital mortality. Female sex was a risk factor for ACS and acute aortic disease but not for AHF or Types A and B AAD. CONCLUSIONS: Sex-based disparities in the CVD-related hospitalization and mortality within the Japanese national population have been highlighted for the first time, indicating the importance of sex-specific strategies in the management and understanding of these conditions.

Rational design of prodrug-type apoB-targeted siRNA for nuclease resistance improvement without compromising gene silencing potency.

Synthetic siRNA molecules without chemical modifications are easily degraded in the body, and 2'-O-modifications are frequently introduced to enhance stability. However, such chemical modifications tend to impact the gene knockdown potency of siRNA negatively. To circumvent this problem, we previously developed a prodrug-type siRNA bearing 2'-O-methyldithiomethyl (MDTM) groups, which can be converted into unmodified siRNA under the reductive environment in cells. In this study, we developed a nuclease-resistant prodrug-type 2'-O-MDTM siRNA for deployment in future animal experiments. To rationally design siRNA modified with a minimal number of 2'-O-MDTM nucleotide residues, we identified the sites susceptible to nuclease digestion and tolerant to 2'-O-methyl (2'-OMe) modification in the antisense strand of apolipoprotein B-targeted siRNA. Subsequently, we optimized the positions where the 2'-OMe and 2'-O-MDTM groups should be incorporated. siRNA bearing the 2'-O-MDTM and 2'-OMe groups at their respective optimized positions exhibited efficient knockdown potency in vitro and enhanced stability in serum.

2023 Update on European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Statement on Homozygous Familial Hypercholesterolaemia: new treatments and clinical guidance.

This 2023 statement updates clinical guidance for homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia (HoFH), explains the genetic complexity, and provides pragmatic recommendations to address inequities in HoFH care worldwide. Key strengths include updated criteria for the clinical diagnosis of HoFH and the recommendation to prioritize phenotypic features over genotype. Thus, a low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) >10 mmol/L (>400 mg/dL) is suggestive of HoFH and warrants further evaluation. The statement also provides state-of-the art discussion and guidance to clinicians for interpreting the results of genetic testing and for family planning and pregnancy. Therapeutic decisions are based on the LDL-C level. Combination LDL-C-lowering therapy-both pharmacologic intervention and lipoprotein apheresis (LA)-is foundational. Addition of novel, efficacious therapies (i.e. inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9, followed by evinacumab and/or lomitapide) offers potential to attain LDL-C goal or reduce the need for LA. To improve HoFH care around the world, the statement recommends the creation of national screening programmes, education to improve awareness, and management guidelines that account for the local realities of care, including access to specialist centres, treatments, and cost. This updated statement provides guidance that is crucial to early diagnosis, better care, and improved cardiovascular health for patients with HoFH worldwide.

Worldwide experience of homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia: retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia (HoFH) is a rare inherited disorder resulting in extremely elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Current guidance about its management and prognosis stems from small studies, mostly from high-income countries. The objective of this study was to assess the clinical and genetic characteristics, as well as the impact, of current practice on health outcomes of HoFH patients globally. METHODS: The HoFH International Clinical Collaborators registry collected data on patients with a clinical, or genetic, or both, diagnosis of HoFH using a retrospective cohort study design. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04815005. FINDINGS: Overall, 751 patients from 38 countries were included, with 565 (75%) reporting biallelic pathogenic variants. The median age of diagnosis was 12·0 years (IQR 5·5-27·0) years. Of the 751 patients, 389 (52%) were female and 362 (48%) were male. Race was reported for 527 patients; 338 (64%) patients were White, 121 (23%) were Asian, and 68 (13%) were Black or mixed race. The major manifestations of ASCVD or aortic stenosis were already present in 65 (9%) of patients at diagnosis of HoFH. Globally, pretreatment LDL cholesterol levels were 14·7 mmol/L (IQR 11·6-18·4). Among patients with detailed therapeutic information, 491 (92%) of 534 received statins, 342 (64%) of 534 received ezetimibe, and 243 (39%) of 621 received lipoprotein apheresis. On-treatment LDL cholesterol levels were lower in high-income countries (3·93 mmol/L, IQR 2·6-5·8) versus non-high-income countries (9·3 mmol/L, 6·7-12·7), with greater use of three or more lipid-lowering therapies (LLT; high-income 66% vs non-high-income 24%) and consequently more patients attaining guideline-recommended LDL cholesterol goals (high-income 21% vs non-high-income 3%). A first major adverse cardiovascular event occurred a decade earlier in non-high-income countries, at a median age of 24·5 years (IQR 17·0-34·5) versus 37·0 years (29·0-49·0) in high-income countries (adjusted hazard ratio 1·64, 95% CI 1·13-2·38). INTERPRETATION: Worldwide, patients with HoFH are diagnosed too late, undertreated, and at high premature ASCVD risk. Greater use of multi-LLT regimens is associated with lower LDL cholesterol levels and better outcomes. Significant global disparities exist in treatment regimens, control of LDL cholesterol levels, and cardiovascular event-free survival, which demands a critical re-evaluation of global health policy to reduce inequalities and improve outcomes for all patients with HoFH. FUNDING: Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center; Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; and European Atherosclerosis Society.

Prodrug-Type Phosphotriester Oligonucleotides with Linear Disulfide Promoieties Responsive to Reducing Environment.

Various chemical modifications have been developed to create new antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) for clinical applications. Our previously designed prodrug-type phosphotriester-modified oligonucleotide with cyclic disulfides (cyclic SS PTE ON) can be converted into unmodified ON in an intracellular-mimetic reducing environment. However, the conversion rate of the cyclic SS PTE ON was very low, and the AON with cyclic SS PTE modifications showed much weaker antisense activity than corresponding to the fully phosphorothioate-modified AON. In this study, we synthesized several types of PTE ONs containing linear disulfides (linear SS PTE ONs) and evaluated their conversion rates under reducing conditions. From the results, the structural requirements for the conversion of the synthesized linear SS PTE ONs were elucidated. Linear SS PTE ON with promising promoieties showed a nuclease resistance up to 4.8-fold compared to unmodified ON and a cellular uptake by endocytosis without any transfection reagent. In addition, although the knockdown activity of the linear SS PTE gapmer AON is weaker than that of the fully phosphorothioate-modified gapmer AON, the knockdown activity is slightly stronger than that of the cyclic SS PTE gapmer AON. These results suggest that the conversion rates may be related to the expression of the antisense activity.

Deficiency of Cardiac Natriuretic Peptide Signaling Promotes Peripartum Cardiomyopathy-Like Remodeling in the Mouse Heart.

BACKGROUND: The maternal circulatory system and hormone balance both change dynamically during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period. Although atrial natriuretic peptides and brain natriuretic peptides produced in the heart control circulatory homeostasis through their common receptor, NPR1, the physiologic and pathophysiologic roles of endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide/brain natriuretic peptide in the perinatal period are not fully understood. METHODS: To clarify the physiologic and pathophysiologic roles of the endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide/brain natriuretic peptide-NPR1 system during the perinatal period, the phenotype of female wild-type and conventional or tissue-specific Npr1-knockout mice during the perinatal period was examined, especially focusing on maternal heart weight, blood pressure, and cardiac function. RESULTS: In wild-type mice, lactation but not pregnancy induced reversible cardiac hypertrophy accompanied by increases in fetal cardiac gene mRNAs and ERK1/2 (extracellular signaling-regulated kinase) phosphorylation. Npr1-knockout mice exhibited significantly higher plasma aldosterone level than did wild-type mice, severe cardiac hypertrophy accompanied by fibrosis, and left ventricular dysfunction in the lactation period. Npr1-knockout mice showed a high mortality rate over consecutive pregnancy-lactation cycles. In the hearts of Npr1-knockout mice during or after the lactation period, an increase in interleukin-6 mRNA expression, phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and activation of the calcineurin-nuclear factor of the activated T cells pathway were observed. Pharmacologic inhibition of the mineralocorticoid receptor or neuron-specific deletion of the mineralocorticoid receptor gene significantly ameliorated cardiac hypertrophy in lactating Npr1-knockout mice. Anti-interleukin-6 receptor antibody administration tended to reduce cardiac hypertrophy in lactating Npr1-knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the characteristics of lactation-induced cardiac hypertrophy in wild-type mice are different from exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy, and that the endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide/brain natriuretic peptide-NPR1 system plays an important role in protecting the maternal heart from interleukin-6-induced inflammation and remodeling in the lactation period, a condition mimicking peripartum cardiomyopathy.

Comprehensive analysis of mechanism underlying hypouricemic effect of glucosyl hesperidin.

Hyperuricemia is caused by hepatic overproduction of uric acid and/or underexcretion of urate from the kidneys and small intestine. Although increased intake of citrus fruits, a fructose-rich food, is associated with increased risk of gout in humans, hesperidin, a flavonoid naturally present in citrus fruits, reportedly reduces serum uric acid (SUA) levels by inhibiting xanthine oxidase (XOD) activity in rats. However, the effects of hesperidin on renal and intestinal urate excretion were previously unknown. In this study, we used glucosyl hesperidin (GH), which has greater bioavailability than hesperidin, to clarify comprehensive mechanisms underlying the hypouricemic effects of hesperidin in vivo. GH dose-dependently decreased SUA levels in mice with hyperuricemia induced by potassium oxonate and a fructose-rich diet, and inhibited XOD activity in the liver. GH decreased renal urate excretion without changes in kidney URAT1, ABCG2 or GLUT9 expressions, suggesting that reducing uric acid pool size by inhibiting XOD decreased renal urate excretion. We also found that GH had no effect on intestinal urate excretion or protein expression of ABCG2. Therefore, we concluded that GH exhibits a hypouricemic effect by inhibiting XOD activity in the liver without increasing renal or intestinal urate excretion. Of note, this is the first study to elucidate the effect of a flavonoid on intestinal urate excretion using a mice model, whose findings should prove useful in future food science research in the area of urate metabolism. Taking these findings together, GH may be useful for preventing hyperuricemia, especially in people with the overproduction type.

The benign c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene interpreted from a pedigree-based genetic analysis of familial hypercholesterolemia.

BACKGROUND: We previously identified the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) gene, which was interpreted as "conflicting interpretations of pathogenicity" in ClinVar, based on a genetic analysis of patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). However, whether this variant affects the pathophysiology of FH remains unclear. Therefore, our aim was to annotate the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene in FH. We present 2 families harboring the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene. METHODS: Genetic analyses were performed for the coding regions and the exon-intron boundary sequence of the LDLR and proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) genes in 2 FH families. Next, the family without pathogenic variants in the LDLR and PCSK9 genes was screened by whole-exome sequencing. Detailed clinical and biochemical data were gathered from family members. RESULTS: In one family, the index case had biallelic c.1567G > A: p.(Val523Met) and c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variants in the LDLR gene, while the sibling had only the c.1567G > A: p.(Val523Met) variant in the LDLR gene. There was no difference in the FH phenotype between the siblings. In another family, the index case and the sibling had no pathogenic variants in the LDLR, PCSK9, and apolipoprotein B (APOB) genes, but the sibling's wife with nonFH had the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene. The sibling and his wife had 4 children, including an unaffected child and an affected child who had the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene. In addition, the allele frequency of the c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant (0.0023-0.0043) in Japanese and East Asian populations is relatively high compared with that of the other LDLR pathogenic variants (0.0001-0.0008). CONCLUSIONS: The c.344G > A: p.(Arg115His) variant in the LDLR gene is interpreted as benign in individuals with FH.

Pharmaceutical Research for Inherited Metabolic Disorders of the Liver Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell and Genome Editing Technologies.

Orthotopic liver transplantation, rather than drug therapy, is the major curative approach for various inherited metabolic disorders of the liver. However, the scarcity of donated livers is a serious problem. To resolve this, there is an urgent need for novel drugs to treat inherited metabolic disorders of the liver. This requirement, in turn, necessitates the establishment of suitable disease models for many inherited metabolic disorders of the liver that currently lack such models for drug development. Recent studies have shown that human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells generated from patients with inherited metabolic disorders of the liver are an ideal cell source for models that faithfully recapitulate the pathophysiology of inherited metabolic disorders of the liver. By using patient iPS cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells, drug efficacy evaluation and drug screening can be performed. In addition, genome editing technology has enabled us to generate functionally recovered patient iPS cell-derived hepatocyte-like cells in vitro. It is also possible to identify the genetic mutations responsible for undiagnosed liver diseases using iPS cell and genome editing technologies. Finally, a combination of exhaustive analysis, iPS cells, and genome editing technologies would be a powerful approach to accelerate the identification of novel genetic mutations responsible for undiagnosed liver diseases. In this review, we will discuss the usefulness of iPS cell and genome editing technologies in the field of inherited metabolic disorders of the liver, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency and familial hypercholesterolemia.

Crude α-Mangostin Suppresses the Development of Atherosclerotic Lesions in Apoe-Deficient Mice by a Possible M2 Macrophage-Mediated Mechanism.

Lifestyle choices play a significant role in the etiology of atherosclerosis. Male Apoe-/- mice that develop spontaneous atherosclerotic lesions were fed 0%, 0.3%, and 0.4% mangosteen extracts, composed largely of α-mangostin (MG), for 17 weeks. Body weight gains were significantly decreased in both MG-treated groups compared to the control, but the general condition remained good throughout the study. The levels of total cholesterol (decreased very-low-density lipoprotein in lipoprotein profile) and triglycerides decreased significantly in the MG-treated mice in conjunction with decreased hepatic HMG-CoA synthase and Fatty acid transporter. Additionally, increased serum lipoprotein lipase activity and histopathology further showed a significant reduction in atherosclerotic lesions at both levels of MG exposure. Real-time PCR analysis for macrophage indicators showed a significant elevation in the levels of Cd163, an M2 macrophage marker, in the lesions of mice receiving 0.4% MG. However, the levels of Nos2, associated with M1 macrophages, showed no change. In addition, quantitative immunohistochemical analysis of macrophage subtypes showed a tendency for increased M2 populations (CD68⁺/CD163⁺) in the lesions of mice given 0.4% MG. In further analysis of the cytokine-polarizing macrophage subtypes, the levels of Interleukin13 (Il13), associated with M2 polarization, were significantly elevated in lesions exposed to 0.4% MG. Thus, MG could suppress the development of atherosclerosis in Apoe-/- mice, possibly through an M2 macrophage-mediated mechanism.

Effective gene silencing activity of prodrug-type 2'-O-methyldithiomethyl siRNA compared with non-prodrug-type 2'-O-methyl siRNA.

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are an active agent to induce gene silencing and they have been studied for becoming a biological and therapeutic tool. Various 2'-O-modified RNAs have been extensively studied to improve the nuclease resistance. However, the 2'-O-modified siRNA activities were often decreased by modification, since the bulky 2'-O-modifications inhibit to form a RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). We developed novel prodrug-type 2'-O-methyldithiomethyl (MDTM) siRNA, which is converted into natural siRNA in an intracellular reducing environment. Prodrug-type 2'-O-MDTM siRNAs modified at the 5'-end side including 5'-end nucleotide and the seed region of the antisense strand exhibited much stronger gene silencing effect than non-prodrug-type 2'-O-methyl (2'-O-Me) siRNAs. Furthermore, the resistances for nuclease digestion of siRNAs were actually enhanced by 2'-O-MDTM modifications. Our results indicate that 2'-O-MDTM modifications improve the stability of siRNA in serum and they are able to be introduced at any positions of siRNA.

Association Between Cholesterol Efflux Capacity and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in Patients With Familial Hypercholesterolemia.

OBJECTIVE: Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) are at high risk for premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), especially because of long-term exposure to high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. It has been reported that low-density lipoprotein-lowering therapy delays the onset of ASCVD. However, it still remains difficult to prevent it. Therefore, novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets are necessary to evaluate and prevent atherosclerosis in FH. The aim of this study was to investigate associations of cholesterol efflux capacity with the presence of ASCVD and clinical features in patients with heterozygous FH. APPROACH AND RESULTS: We measured cholesterol efflux capacity in 227 patients with heterozygous FH under pharmaceutical treatment. Seventy-six (33.5%) of them were known to have ASCVD. In a logistic-regression analysis adjusted for risk factors, increased efflux capacity was associated with decreased risk of ASCVD even after the addition of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol level as a covariate (odds ratio per 1-SD increase, 0.95; 95% confidence interval, 0.90-0.99; P<0.05). Decreased cholesterol efflux capacity was associated with the presence of corneal arcus after adjusting for age and sex. In addition, inverse relationships between cholesterol efflux capacity and Achilles tendon thickness, as well as carotid intima-media thickness, were observed after adjustment for age, sex, and traditional cardiovascular risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Cholesterol efflux capacity was independently and inversely associated with the presence of ASCVD in heterozygous FH. In view of residual risks after treatment with statins, cholesterol efflux capacity might be a novel biomarker and a therapeutic target for preventing atherosclerosis in patients with FH.

Achilles Tendon Ultrasonography for Diagnosis of Familial Hypercholesterolemia Among Japanese Subjects.

BACKGROUND: Difficulty in detecting and measuring Achilles tendon (AT) xanthomas may be responsible for underdiagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). We aimed to determine a cutoff value for AT thickness (AT-T) using ultrasonography to diagnose FH, and to investigate the relationship between AT-T and atherosclerosis.Methods and Results:Ultrasonographic AT-T and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) were evaluated in 130 genetically diagnosed FH patients and 155 non-FH patients. The outline and internal properties of the AT could be clearly determined using ultrasonography, and a good correlation in AT-T was observed between ultrasonography and the conventional method of X-ray radiography (r=0.924, P<0.001). Cutoff values for the diagnosis of FH derived from receiver-operating curves were 5.8 mm (sensitivity 71%, specificity 78%) in men, and 5.5 mm (sensitivity 80%, specificity 81%) in women. Importantly, increased AT-T was positively associated with carotid IMT only in the FH group. Additionally, increased AT-T was associated with the presence of coronary artery disease in a logistic regression analysis adjusted for traditional cardiovascular risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to determine a cutoff value for AT-T based on ultrasonography for the diagnosis of FH in Japanese subjects. Clearer detection and easier measurement of AT-T using ultrasonography would encourage clinicians to diagnose FH more actively, and could solve the problem of underdiagnosis of FH.

LDL apheresis in Japan.

LDL apheresis has been developed as the treatment for refractory familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). Currently, plasma exchange, double membrane filtration, and selective LDL adsorption are available in Japan, and selective LDL adsorption is most common method. LDL apheresis can prevent atherosclerosis progression even in homozygous (HoFH). However, in our observational study, HoFH who started LDL apheresis from adulthood had poor prognosis compared with patients who started from childhood. Therefore, as far as possible, HoFH patients need to start LDL apheresis from childhood. Although indication of LDL apheresis in heterozygous FH (HeFH) has been decreasing with the advent of strong statin, our observational study showed that HeFH patients who were discontinued LDL apheresis therapy had poor prognosis compared with patients who were continued apheresis therapy. These results suggest that high risk HeFH need to be treated by LDL apheresis even if their LDLC is controlled by lipid-lowering agents. However, by launching new class of lipid lowering agents, that is, PCSK-9 antibody and MTP inhibitor, indication of LDL-apheresis in FH may be changed near the future. LDL-apheresis can provide symptom relief of peripheral artery disease (PAD). Therefore, PAD patients who have insufficient effect by other therapeutic approach including revascularization are also treated by LDL apheresis. Thus, LDL apheresis is still one of good therapeutic options for severe atherosclerotic diseases in Japan.

Efficacy and safety of alirocumab in patients with hypercholesterolemia not adequately controlled with non-statin lipid-lowering therapy or the lowest strength of statin: ODYSSEY NIPPON study design and rationale.

BACKGROUND: Statins are generally well-tolerated and serious side effects are infrequent, but some patients experience adverse events and reduce their statin dose or discontinue treatment altogether. Alirocumab is a highly specific, fully human monoclonal antibody to proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), which can produce substantial and sustained reductions of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). METHODS: The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, phase 3 ODYSSEY NIPPON study will explore alirocumab 150 mg every 4 weeks (Q4W) in 163 Japanese patients with hypercholesterolemia who are on the lowest-strength dose of atorvastatin (5 mg/day) or are receiving a non-statin lipid-lowering therapy (LLT) (fenofibrate, bezafibrate, ezetimibe, or diet therapy alone). Hypercholesterolemia is defined as LDL-C ≥ 100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L) in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia or non-familial hypercholesterolemia with a history of documented coronary heart disease, or ≥120 mg/dL (3.1 mmol/L) in patients with non-familial hypercholesterolemia classified as primary prevention category III (i.e. high-risk patients). During the 12-week double-blind treatment period, patients will be randomized (1:1:1) to receive alirocumab subcutaneously (SC) 150 mg Q4W alternating with placebo for alirocumab Q4W, or alirocumab 150 mg SC every 2 weeks (Q2W), or SC placebo Q2W. The primary efficacy endpoint is the percentage change in calculated LDL-C from baseline to week 12. The long-term safety and tolerability of alirocumab will also be investigated. DISCUSSION: The ODYSSEY NIPPON study will provide insights into the efficacy and safety of alirocumab 150 mg Q4W or 150 mg Q2W among Japanese patients with hypercholesterolemia who are on the lowest-strength dose of atorvastatin, or are receiving a non-statin LLT (including diet therapy alone). TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT02584504.

A Novel Strategy for Etiologic Factor Removal: Drug-Navigated Clearance System (DNCS).

Here, we propose a novel therapeutic concept named drug-navigated clearance system (DNCS), in which a "navigator" decreases the concentration of a target etiologic factor in the blood by steering it to an unusual metabolic pathway. The navigator is composed of protein A (ProA) and dextran sulfate (DexS) and it successfully navigated antibodies (ABs), a model etiologic factor of dilated cardiomyopathy, to hepatocytes in vitro in the presence of low-density lipoprotein (LDL). ProA captured the Fc region of the target antibody while the DexS bound to LDL via the well-known electrostatic interaction. The hepatocytes simultaneously took up LDL via the LDL-receptor and internalized the AB/ProA-DexS complex that was bound to LDL. Therefore, this process demonstrates our attempt to navigate the etiologic factor to an alternate target pathway such as the LDL salvage.

Pathological and molecular analyses of atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-knockout mice.

The establishment of consistent and reliable methods for the analysis of atherosclerosis molecular pathways and for testing the efficiency of new therapeutics is of utmost importance. Here, we fed ApoE-knockout (KO) mice with high-fat diet to for 16 weeks to induce atherosclerosis. Atherosclerotic lesions in mice were methodically investigated using pathologic analyses and molecular biology tools. These lesions were histopathologically classified into three categories: early, progressive, and combined lesions. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that both F4/80 (macrophage marker) and tenascin-C are expressed in these lesions. Real-time PCR analysis conducted using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues with atherosclerotic lesions demonstrated an increase in the levels of many inflammatory chemokines, including Cxcl16, while antibody arrays performed using frozen atherosclerotic tissue samples showed elevated TIMP-1 expression. Subsequent immunohistochemical analyses showed that the expression of CXCL16, TIMP-1, MMP-9, MMP-8, and LOX-1 is localized in the atherosclerotic lesions. We confirmed that the expression of these proteins is localized to atherosclerotic lesion, which suggests their roles in the development of the lesions in ApoE-KO mice. Therefore, this mouse model represents an appropriate tool for elucidating molecular mechanisms underlying the development of atherosclerosis, and a model for the evaluation of therapeutic efficiency of novel drugs.