UV-induced feather color change reflects its porphyrin content.

Pigmentary coloration is widespread in animals. Its evolutionary and ecological features are often attributed to the property of predominant pigments; therefore, most research has focused on predominant pigments such as carotenoids in carotenoid-based coloration. However, coloration results from predominant pigments and many other minority pigments, and the importance of the latter is overlooked. Here, we focused on porphyrin, an "uncommon" pigment found in bird feathers, and investigated its importance in the context of feather color changes in the barn swallow Hirundo rustica. We found that the "pheomelanin-based coloration" of the barn swallow faded after the irradiation of UV light, and this effect was particularly strong in the feathers of young swallows (nestlings and fledglings, here). We also found that it is not the predominant pigment, pheomelanin, but protoporphyrin IX pigment that showed the same pattern of depigmentation after the irradiation of UV light, particularly in the feathers of young swallows. In fact, the abovementioned age-dependent feather color change was statistically explained by the amount of porphyrin in the feathers. The current study demonstrates that a minority pigment, porphyrin, explains within-season dynamic color change, an ecological feature of feather coloration. The porphyrin-mediated rapid color change would benefit young birds, in which feather coloration affects the parental food allocation during a few weeks before independence, but not later. Future studies should not ignore these minor but essential pigments and their evolutionary and ecological functions.

Opposing population trends of fork-tailed swallows and reddish-coloured swallows in our changing world.

Sexual selection can in theory lead to positive and negative effect on population-level fitness and hence population increase/decline in our changing world, but the empirical evidence is scarce. Using a phylogenetic comparative approach, we examined whether and how different sexually selected ornaments affect recent population trends and extinction risk in swallows (Aves: Hirundininae). We found that population trends decreased with increasing depth of male tails, that is a well-known sexually selected trait, and increased with increasing score of reddish plumage coloration, another sexually selected ornament. Similar contrasting patterns were observed for extinction risk. These findings indicate ornament-specific population trends and extinction risk, perhaps due to the differential costs and benefits of ornamentation. Previous studies have mostly focused on the overall effects of sexual selection by combining different kinds of traits, presumed to be sexually selected. However, as predicted by theory, sexual selection would not be a process with the same universal effect on population dynamics as we found here. Divergent ecological consequences would occur through minor differences in sexual selection, which should not be dismissed in future studies.

Fork tails evolved differently in swallows and swifts.

Whether sexual or viability selection drives the evolution of ornamental traits is often unclear because current function does not clarify evolutionary history, particularly when the ornamentation is a modified version of the functional traits. Here, using a phylogenetic comparative approach, we studied how deeply forked tails-a classic example of sexually selected traits that might also be a mechanical device for enhancing aerodynamic ability-evolved in two groups of aerial foragers, swallows (family: Hirundinidae) and swifts (family: Apodidae). Although apparent fork depth, the target of sexual selection, increases with increasing outermost tail feather length, fork depth can also increase with decreasing central tail feather length, which impairs the lift generated by the tail. Thus, we predicted that sexual selection, but not viability selection, should favour the evolution of short central tail feathers in species with deeply forked tails, particularly in swifts, which are less reliant on the lift generated by their tail than in swallows. We found support for these predictions because central tail feather length decreased with increasing tail fork depth, particularly in swifts. Instead, the increase in outermost tail feather length per unit tail fork depth was higher in swallows than in swifts, indicating that a similar sexual ornamentation (i.e. forked tails) differently evolved in these two aerial insectivores perhaps due to the differential cost of ornamentation. We also found support for an optical illusion that changes the relative importance of central and outermost tail feather length in sexual selection.

Small, Variable Sperm in a Barn Swallow Population with Low Extra-Pair Paternity.

Sperm competition can theoretically affect sperm morphology; however, it remains unclear whether and how sperm morphology tracks the intensity of sperm competition in each population. The barn swallow Hirundo rustica is a model species used in the study of sexual selection, and exhibits considerable variation in extra-pair paternity (percentage extra-pair young, ca. 3-30%) among populations. In the Joetsu population of the barn swallow, extra-pair paternity is virtually absent (< 3%), providing a rare opportunity to study sperm morphology under limited sperm competition, and to compare it with those reported in populations with frequent extra-pair paternity (>15%). We found that head, midpiece, and total sperm length were significantly shorter in the Joetsu population than in populations with frequent extra-pair paternity. Moreover, the variability in total sperm length, measured as the coefficient of variation in the Joetsu population, was twice as high as that of populations with frequent extra-pair paternity. These results are consistent with a positive, directional, and stabilizing effect of sperm competition on sperm morphology. Together with previous studies in populations with frequent extra-pair paternity, the current study provides one of few sets of evidence to show a link between the intensity of sperm competition and the mean and variance of sperm morphology within a wild bird species.

The impact of a school-based tooth-brushing program on dental caries: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Promotion of oral health in children is recognized as one of the components of health-promoting schools (HPSs). However, few studies have addressed supportive school environments for children's oral health. This study aimed to evaluate the status of dental caries in school children at HPSs, with the objective of examining the impact of a supportive school environment for oral health, considering the lifestyles of individual children and the socioeconomic characteristics of their communities. METHODS: Data of 2043 5th-grade students in 21 elementary schools in Ichikawa city between 2008 and 2013 were analyzed. Children's oral health status was evaluated using the decayed, missing, and filled permanent teeth (DMFT) index. A self-reported lifestyle questionnaire, a survey of the school environment promoting tooth-brushing, and community socioeconomic characteristics derived from the National Census data were included in the analyses. Bivariate analyses were conducted to evaluate the children's DMFT status, and zero-inflated negative binominal (ZINB) regression was used to assess the relationships between DMFT and other variables. RESULTS: Prevalence of dental caries in the permanent teeth of 5th-grade children (aged 10-11 years) was 33.3%, with a mean DMFT score (± SD) of 0.83 ± 1.50. According to multilevel ZINB regression analysis, children from schools with after-lunch tooth-brushing time showed a higher odds ratio (OR) for excess zero DMFT (OR = 1.47, 95% CI = 1.00-2.15, P = 0.049) as compared to those from schools without it. Neither bivariate analysis nor ZINB model analysis revealed any significant influence of children's gender or use of a toothpaste with fluoride. CONCLUSIONS: The school-based environment supportive of oral health was significantly associated with a zero DMFT status in children. School-based efforts considering the socioeconomic characteristics of the area warrant attention even with declining prevalence of dental caries.

Males with More Pheomelanin Have a Lower Oxidative Balance in Asian Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica gutturalis).

Pheomelanin-based plumage pigmentation has been suggested to be an honest signal of individual quality to conspecifics. It has been hypothesized that oxidative stress is an important agent linking pheomelanic pigmentation to individual quality. Using the Asian barn swallow Hirundo rustica gutturalis, a wild passerine, we tested whether the pheomelanin pigmentation in the red throat patch of adult males, a sexually selected trait, is associated with the ratio between reduced and oxidized glutathione (RGSH/GSSG) as an indicator of current oxidative balance during the early breeding season. We found that males with a higher pheomelanin concentration in their throat feathers had a significantly lower RGSH/GSSG ratio (i.e., higher oxidative stress), but exhibited a better body condition, measured as residual body mass on body size, compared to males with a lower pheomelanin concentration. The total GSH level was not significantly related to the pheomelanin concentration. These findings suggest a negative association between the red pheomelanin pigmentation and oxidative balance during mating and reproductive efforts, which might be mitigated by high-quality males. Further research is needed to understand its actual damage and mitigation mechanism.

SMARCB1/INI1/BAF47- deficient pleural malignant mesothelioma with rhabdoid features.

Malignant mesothelioma (MM) with rhabdoid features is an MM variant. Fifteen cases have been reported previously, all of which were combined with other types of MM. Herein, we report an autopsy case of pleural MM with monomorphic rhabdoid features. The patient was a 62-year-old male without a history of asbestos exposure. An autopsy revealed a soft, granular tumor that replaced the entire left pleura and had invaded to the diaphragm and lower lobe of the lung. The tumor cells, which had eosinophilic plump cytoplasm and eccentric nuclei, were loosely cohesive. Immunohistochemistry showed that the cells were diffusely positive for calretinin, D2-40, vimentin, CAM5.2, and AE1/AE3; and negative for WT-1, TTF-1, CK7, CEA, desmin, CD34, BCL-2, S100 protein, and p40. Neither homozygous deletion of p16 nor BAP-1 protein loss was observed. Loss of INI1/BAF47 protein, an indicator of malignant rhabdoid tumor, was observed. Therefore, MM with rhabdoid features was confirmed.

Plasma Testosterone Levels Increase with Expression of Male Ornaments During Mating, but not Incubation, in Japanese Barn Swallows.

Recent experimental studies involving the manipulation of sexual traits have demonstrated that sexual trait expression feeds back to testosterone levels, perhaps via social interactions, reinforcing the linkage between sexual trait expression and testosterone levels during the mating period. However, information on this reinforcement under the natural variation of sexual traits remains limited. Using Japanese barn swallows, Hirundo rustica gutturalis, in which extra-pair paternity is quite rare (< 3%), we studied the relationship between plasma testosterone level and a male sexual trait, throat patch size, during the mating and incubation periods. Given the importance of social interaction, we predicted that this relationship should be intense during the mating period, but not the incubation period, due to reduced social interaction during the latter. We found low plasma testosterone levels during the incubation period compared with those in the mating period, and plasma testosterone levels were significantly positively related to throat patch area during the mating period, but not the incubation period. Similar relationships were found in another sexual trait, the size of white tail spots. During the incubation period, body condition, instead of male sexual trait expression, was negatively related to plasma testosterone level, indicating that an intrinsic link, rather than reinforcement, is important during this period. These relationships are consistent with the hypothesis that social interaction reinforces the relationship between sexual traits and plasma testosterone levels. The current study provides evidence for a highly variable relationship between testosterone and ornamentation across breeding periods in the natural variation of sexual traits.

Metabolic Syndrome, Lifestyle, and Dental Caries in Japanese School Children.

The number of children with Metabolic Syndrome (MetS) has recently been increasing in Japan. Few studies have investigated the relationship between MetS and oral health. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between MetS, lifestyle, and oral health status in school children. Our goal is to utilize these results in health education aimed at preventing the onset of MetS in school children and adults. A total of 689 Japanese children (365 boys and 324 girls) aged between 10 and 13 years were examined and waist circumference (WC), ratio of WC to height, blood pressure, fasting blood sugar (FBS), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and triglyceride values determined together with oral health status, including dental caries experience (DMFT). The results revealed that 6.5% of the children fell under the health board recognized "MetS or high risk of MetS" (MetS/HR) classification. A total of 140 (20%) children had a high Streptococcus mutans count. The mean WC, FBS, and DMFT values were significantly greater in children with a high salivary S. mutans count (p<0.05). Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed a statistically significance association between MetS/HR, non-breakfast eaters (odds ratio (OR): 2.70), no regular exercise (OR: 2.60), and a high salivary S. mutans count (≥10(5) CFU/ml; OR: 2.18; p<0.05). The present results indicate that lifestyle and salivary S. mutans count could be useful in screening children for MetS/HR. These variables may be useful in targeting interventions aimed at preventing MetS in school children.

Song characteristics track bill morphology along a gradient of urbanization in house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus).

INTRODUCTION: Urbanization can considerably impact animal ecology, evolution, and behavior. Among the new conditions that animals experience in cities is anthropogenic noise, which can limit the sound space available for animals to communicate using acoustic signals. Some urban bird species increase their song frequencies so that they can be heard above low-frequency background city noise. However, the ability to make such song modifications may be constrained by several morphological factors, including bill gape, size, and shape, thereby limiting the degree to which certain species can vocally adapt to urban settings. We examined the relationship between song characteristics and bill morphology in a species (the house finch, Haemorhous mexicanus) where both vocal performance and bill size are known to differ between city and rural animals. RESULTS: We found that bills were longer and narrower in more disturbed, urban areas. We observed an increase in minimum song frequency of urban birds, and we also found that the upper frequency limit of songs decreased in direct relation to bill morphology. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that birds with longer beaks and therefore longer vocal tracts sing songs with lower maximum frequencies because longer tubes have lower-frequency resonances. Thus, for the first time, we reveal dual constraints (one biotic, one abiotic) on the song frequency range of urban animals. Urban foraging pressures may additionally interact with the acoustic environment to shape bill traits and vocal performance.

Compensatory traits can explain the concave cost function of purely sexual traits.

The cost of ornamentation is often measured experimentally to study the relative importance of sexual and viability selection for ornamentation, but these experiments can lead to a misleading conclusion when compensatory trait is ignored. For example, a classic experiment on the outermost tail feathers in the barn swallow Hirundo rustica explains that the concave (or U-shaped) aerodynamic performance cost of the outermost tail feathers would be the evolutionary outcome through viability selection for optimal tail length, but this conclusion depends on the assumption that compensatory traits do not cause reduced performance. Using a simple "toy model" experiment, I demonstrated that ornamentation evolved purely though sexual selection can produce a concave cost function under the presence of compensatory traits, which was further reinforced by a simple mathematical model. Therefore, concave cost function (and the low performance of individuals with reduced ornaments) cannot be used to infer the evolutionary force favoring ornamentation, due to a previously overlooked concept, "overcompensation," which can worsen the whole body performance.

A component of high-grade fetal lung adenocarcinoma diagnosed as the cause of lymph node metastasis.

High-grade fetal lung adenocarcinoma (H-FLAC) is a rare type of tumor. There have been no reports demonstrating the degree of metastatic susceptibility of this tumor type. In this report, we describe a case in which 15% of the adenocarcinoma components were H-FLAC diagnosed as the cause of lymph node metastasis. A 75-year-old man presented with suspected primary lung cancer (clinical stage IIA, T2bN0M0) and underwent left upper lobectomy and superior mediastinal lymph node dissection. Postoperative histopathology revealed lung cancer with only lobar bronchial lymph node (#11) metastasis. Approximately 60% of the invasive adenocarcinoma showed a papillary morphology, 25% showed a lepidic morphology, and 15% showed a fetal morphology. The histomorphological and immunohistological features of #11 metastasis were similar to those of H-FLAC. Herein, we report a rare and important case of H-FLAC with proven lymph node metastasis, showing that even a small amount of H-FLAC tissue can cause metastasis.

Differential female access to males with large throat patches in the Asian barn swallow Hirundo rustica gutturalis.

Intersexual selection results from several processes, such as differential allocation and differential access, in addition to mating skews by mate choice. These processes can contribute to the evolution, maintenance, and geographic differentiation of male ornamentation, although the importance of these processes in male ornamentation remains poorly understood. The Asian barn swallow Hirundo rustica gutturalis is a socially monogamous songbird that exhibits biparental care and has red throat patches twice as large as those of the nominate H. r. rustica. Our previous study showed that females paired to males with large throat patches had higher reproductive output in terms of multiple broods, although the underlying process resulting in selection for a large throat patch remained unclear. In the present study, we analyzed differential female access to males with large throat patches in H. r. gutturalis. We observed that males with large throat patches acquired older and fatter females, independent of male age class. In addition, females that mated to males with large throat patches returned to the study site more compared with others, indicating the high viability of these females, supporting differential access but not differential allocation. No other measures of male ornaments (i.e., tail length, white tail spots, or throat color value) were linked to female qualities. As these female qualities were associated with female reproductive output, males with large throat patches would obtain reproductive advantages, as found in our previous study. The current findings suggest the importance of differential access for the evolution of a large throat patch in this subspecies.

Annual change in pulmonary function and clinical phenotype in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

RATIONALE: Although the rate of annual decline in FEV1 is one of the most important outcome measures in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), little is known about intersubject variability based on clinical phenotypes. OBJECTIVES: To examine the intersubject variability in a 5-year observational cohort study, particularly focusing on emphysema severity. METHODS: A total of 279 eligible patients with COPD (stages I-IV: 26, 45, 24, and 5%) participated. We conducted a detailed assessment of pulmonary function and computed tomography (CT) at baseline, and performed spirometry every 6 months before and after inhalation of bronchodilator. Smoking status, exacerbation, and pharmacotherapy were carefully monitored. Emphysema severity was evaluated by CT and annual measurements of carbon monoxide transfer coefficient. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Using mixed effects model analysis, the annual decline in post-bronchodilator FEV1 was -32±24 (SD) ml/yr (n=261). We classified the subjects of less than the 25th percentile as Rapid decliners, the 25th to 75th percentile as Slow decliners, and greater than the 75th percentile as Sustainers (-63±2, -31±1, and -2±1 [SE] ml/yr). Emphysema severity, but not %FEV1, showed significant differences among the three groups. Multiple logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the Rapid decliners were independently associated with emphysema severity assessed either by CT or carbon monoxide transfer coefficient. The Sustainers displayed less emphysema and higher levels of circulating eosinophils. CONCLUSIONS: Emphysema severity is independently associated with a rapid annual decline in FEV1 in COPD. Sustainers and Rapid decliners warrant specific attention in clinical practice.

Beta2-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms as a determinant of preferential bronchodilator responses to ß2-agonist and anticholinergic agents in Japanese patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have shown that polymorphisms in the ß2-adrenergic receptor gene (ADRB2) may influence bronchodilator response (BDR) to both ß2-agonists and anticholinergics, possibly by intracellular cross-talk, but in opposite ways, in the Japanese population. We hypothesized that the preferential response to either class of bronchodilators might be determined by ADRB2 polymorphisms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). OBJECTIVE: To examine the association of ADRB2 polymorphisms and preferential BDR to ß2-agonists and anticholinergics in patients with COPD. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: The participants had been enrolled in the Hokkaido COPD cohort study. BDR to either class of bronchodilators (salbutamol or oxytropium, 0.4 mg) was measured every 6 months for 2 years. Considering the variation of BDR within and between days, mean values of postbronchodilator increases in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (ΔFEV1) for the two agents measured at two different visits were initially used for the primary analysis (N=189). To confirm the results of the primary analysis, ΔFEV1 measured at a single visit was also used for secondary analyses. RESULTS: Although a significant correlation between BDRs to salbutamol and to oxytropium was observed (P<0.001, r=0.36), there were individuals who responded preferentially to one of the two agents. When the participants were classified into two groups based on the bronchodilator causing the better response (salbutamol-dominant group and oxytropium-dominant group), Arg allele was significantly more common in the oxytropium-dominant group than in the salbutamol-dominant group (0.001

Eumelanin levels in rufous feathers explain plasma testosterone levels and survival in swallows.

Pigment-based plumage coloration and its physiological properties have attracted many researchers to explain the evolution of such ornamental traits. These studies, however, assume the functional importance of the predominant pigment while ignoring that of other minor pigments, and few studies have focused on the composition of these pigments. Using the pheomelanin-based plumage in two swallow species, we studied the allocation of two pigments (the predominant pigment, pheomelanin, and the minor pigment, eumelanin) in relation to physiological properties and viability in populations under a natural and sexual selection. This is indispensable for studying the evolution of pheomelanin-based plumage coloration. Pheomelanin and eumelanin share the same pathway only during their initial stages of development, which can be a key to unravel the functional importance of pigment allocation and thus of plumage coloration. Using the barn swallow, Hirundo rustica, a migratory species, we found that plasma testosterone levels increased with increasing the proportion of eumelanin pigments compared with pheomelanin pigments, but not with the amount of pheomelanin pigments, during the mating period. In the Pacific swallow Hirundo tahitica, a nonmigratory congener, we found that, during severe winter weathers, survivors had a proportionally smaller amount of eumelanin pigments compared with pheomelanin pigments than that in nonsurvivors, but no detectable difference was found in the pheomelanin pigmentation itself. These results indicated that a minor pigment, eumelanin, matters at least in some physiological measures and viability. Because the major pigment, pheomelanin, has its own physiological properties, a combination of major and minor pigments provides multiple information to the signal receivers, potentially enhancing the signaling function of pheomelanic coloration and its diversification across habitats.

Sexually dimorphic swallows have higher extinction risk.

The effect of sexual selection on extinction risk remains unclear. In theory, sexual selection can lead to both increase and decrease extinction probability depending on the ecology of the study system. Thus, combining different groups might obscure patterns that can be found in groups that share similar ecological features. Using phylogenetic comparative analysis, we studied sexual plumage dimorphism in relation to the perceived risk of extinction in hirundines (subfamily: Hirundininae), in which all species are socially monogamous aerial foragers. Among the 72 species studied, five species are facing a perceived threat of extinction. Species with sexually dimorphic plumage had a higher risk of extinction than did species with sexually monomorphic plumage. Likewise, when focusing solely on tail ornamentation, species that exhibit a sexual dimorphism in tail length had a higher risk of extinction than did other species. In Hirundininae, which are affected a great deal by severe weather, sexual selection and the resultant sexual dimorphism would increase extinction risk.

Beta2-adrenergic receptor genetic polymorphisms and short-term bronchodilator responses in patients with COPD.

BACKGROUND: COPD is characterized by a persistent airflow limitation that is not fully reversible; thus, the reversibility of airflow limitations in response to a bronchodilator is an important component of COPD. Several studies have established that two common nonsynonymous polymorphisms in the beta2-adrenergic receptor gene (ADRB2), Arg16Gly and Gln27Glu, have important effects in modulating responses to beta2-agonists; however, the effects of these polymorphisms on responses to beta2-agonists in patients with COPD is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether different genotypes at these two polymorphisms are related to differential responses to inhaled beta2-agonists in patients with COPD. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: A total of 246 patients with COPD who were participants in a longitudinal study of COPD (ie, the Hokkaido COPD cohort study) were studied. We compared short-term bronchodilator responses (BDRs) to salbutamol according to ADRB2 genotypes at codons 16 and 27. RESULTS: The presence of the Arg16 allele was associated with lower BDRs to beta2-agonist inhalation. The mean (+/-SD) log (postbronchodilator FEV1-prebronchodilator FEV1) values of Gly16 homozygotes (n=65), Arg16Gly16 heterozygotes (n=106), and Arg16 homozygotes (n=75) were 2.19+/-0.43, 2.09+/-0.42, and 2.01+/-0.42, respectively (p<0.05). The genetic effects of the Arg16Gly polymorphism were independent of the severity of airflow limitation, age, and smoking status. The most common Arg16-Gln27 haplotype was also significantly associated with decreased BDRs to salbutamol (p<0.01). CONCLUSION: The genetic effects of ADRB2 gene polymorphisms may explain some of the variability in response to therapeutic doses of a short-acting beta2-agonists in patients with COPD.

[Characteristics of pathophysiology in COPD].

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by airflow limitation caused by emphysema and/or airway narrowing. The major site of airflow limitation in COPD is thought to be small airways (inner diameters<2 mm). In patients with COPD, FEV1 (%predicted) is highly correlated with airway luminal area and also with wall thickening and the correlation coefficients improve as airway size decreases. In patient with COPD, maximal flow(V max) at lower lung volumes is remarkably lowered. As the disease progresses, air trapping occurs even during resting ventilation, thus causing increased functional residual capacity (FRC). Reduced inspiratory capacity as a result of increased FRC is believed to be highly correlated with breathlessness in COPD.

Evolution of tail fork depth in genus Hirundo.

A classic example of a sexually selected trait, the deep fork tail of the barn swallow Hirundo rustica is now claimed to have evolved and be maintained mainly via aerodynamic advantage rather than sexually selected advantage. However, this aerodynamic advantage hypothesis does not clarify which flight habits select for/against deep fork tails, causing diversity of tail fork depth in hirundines. Here, by focusing on the genus Hirundo, we investigated whether the large variation in tail fork depth could be explained by the differential flight habits. Using a phylogenetic comparative approach, we found that migrant species had deeper fork tails, but less colorful plumage, than the other species, indicating that migration favors a specific trait, deep fork tails. At the same time, tail fork depth but not plumage coloration decreased with increasing bill size - a proxy of prey size, suggesting that foraging on larger prey items favors shallower fork tails. Variation of tail fork depth in the genus Hirundo may be explained by differential flight habits, even without assuming sexual selection.