Histologic acute graft pyelonephritis after kidney transplantation: Incidence, clinical characteristics, risk factors, and association with graft loss.

BACKGROUND: Histologic acute graft pyelonephritis (HAGPN) after kidney transplantation (KT) has been assessed less frequently than urinary tract infections (UTIs) or clinical acute graft pyelonephritis. Risk factors for HAGPN, its association with graft loss, and measures that might prevent it are not known. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of HAGPN cases identified from KT occurring between January 2008 and December 2017 at our institution. We compared the HAGPN cases to a randomly selected control group of KTs to identify risk factors using univariate and multivariate Cox regression models. The association between HAGPN and graft loss was also assessed, similarly. RESULTS: HAGPN was identified in 46 of 1391 patients (cumulative incidence, 5% [95% CI, 3%-7%]) undergoing KT at a single center from January 2008 through December 2017 (median time to diagnosis, 241 days after KT; interquartile range, 122-755 days). Indications for biopsy were follow-up of treated rejection (n = 20 [43%]), KT protocol biopsy (n = 19 [41%]), and acute kidney injury (n = 7 [15%]). Histologic rejection, UTI, and asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) were present in 23 (50%), 9 (20%), and 16 (35%). Multivariate Cox proportional hazards models comparing KT recipients with or without HAGPN (n = 46 and n = 138, respectively) showed that HAGPN was associated with urologic complication by day 30, delayed graft function, previous UTI or ASB, and a history of rejection. In the univariate and multivariate analyses, HAGPN was associated with an increased risk of graft loss. CONCLUSION: HAGPN is an infrequent, unanticipated, and clinically significant complication of KT.

Cryptococcus neoformans pericarditis in a lung transplant recipient: Case report, literature review and pearls.

A 68-year-old man presented for outpatient evaluation of dyspnea and new-onset atrial fibrillation 9 months after undergoing bilateral lung transplantation. Echocardiography prior to cardioversion raised concern for tamponade. Therapeutic pericardiocentesis returned fluid containing 1875 wbc/mcl (68% pmn) and yielded Cryptococcus neoformans in culture. Cryptococcal antigen was detected in serum at a titer of 1:20. Cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid was without evidence of inflammation and without detectable cryptococcal antigen. There was no radiographic evidence of pulmonary cryptococcosis. Cultures of blood and CSF were without growth. Liposomal amphotericin B (3 mg/kg/day) was administered for 15 days. Oral fluconazole was added on day seven of amphotericin, and the patient was discharged to home 3 days later. Daily dosages of prednisone (10 mg), mycophenolate (500 mg), and tacrolimus (3 mg) at discharge were the same as at hospital admission. He was readmitted 12 days later with dyspnea and with re-accumulation and loculation of pericardial fluid. A pericardial window was created. Pericardial fluid contained 722 wbc/mcl (35% pmn); Cryptococcus was not identified on direct examinations or cultures of pericardial fluid or tissue. Cryptococcus antigen was present in serum at 1:160. Liposomal amphotericin B was resumed and continued for 2 weeks followed by resumption of fluconazole. Mycophenolate was stopped. Prednisone and tacrolimus were continued. Restrictive pericarditis was evident 3 weeks after window creation. Colchicine was initiated, prednisone increased to 15 mg daily and pericardiectomy planned. We aim to raise awareness to Cryptococcus as a potential etiology for pericarditis in solid organ transplant recipients.

Surgical site infections after liver retransplantation: incidence and risk factors.

Surgical site infections (SSIs) after liver transplantation (LT) are associated with an increased risk of graft loss and death. The incidence of SSIs after LT and their risk factors have been determined for first LT but not for second LT. The importance of reporting the incidence of SSIs risk-stratified by first LT versus second LT is not known. All patients undergoing second LT at a single institution between 2003 and 2011 (n = 152) were reviewed. The Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate the cumulative SSI incidence. Relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to evaluate associations of potential risk factors with SSIs after second LT. Thirty-one patients developed SSIs (6 superficial SSIs, 1 deep SSI, and 24 organ/space SSIs). The cumulative incidence of SSIs 30 days after LT was 20.8% (95% CI = 14%-27%), which was slightly but not significantly higher than the previously reported incidence of SSIs after first LT at our institution between 2003 and 2008 (16%, RR = 1.32, 95% CI = 0.90-1.93, P = .16). Units of transfused red blood cells [RR (doubling) = 1.38, 95% CI = 1.02-1.86, P = .04] and hepaticojejunostomy (RR = 2.22, 95% CI = 1.05-4.72, P = .04) were the only factors associated with SSIs after second LT in single-variable analysis. The associations weakened in a multivariate analysis (P = .07 and P = .07, respectively), potentially because of the correlation of red blood cell transfusions and hepaticojejunostomy (P = .08). In conclusion, the incidence of SSIs after second LT was slightly higher but not significantly different than the published incidence of SSIs (16%) after first LT at the same institution. Significant independent risk factors for SSIs after second LT were not identified. Risk stratification for retransplantation may not be necessary when the incidence of SSIs after LT is being reported.

Variability in clinical features of early versus late cardiovascular implantable electronic device pocket infections.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular implantable electronic device (CIED) pocket infections are often related to recent CIED placement or manipulation, but these infections are not well characterized. The clinical presentation of CIED pocket infection, based on temporal onset related to last CIED procedure, deserves further study. METHODS: The MEDIC (Multicenter Electrophysiologic Device Infection Cohort) prospectively enrolled subjects with CIED infection. Subjects were stratified into those whose infection occurred <12 months (early) or ≥ 12 months (late) since their last CIED-related procedure. RESULTS: There were 132 subjects in the early group and 106 in the late group. There were more females (P = 0.009) and anticoagulation use (P = 0.039) in the early group. Subjects with early infections were more likely to have had a generator change or lead addition as their last procedure (P = 0.03) and had more prior CIED procedures (P = 0.023). Early infections were more likely to present with pocket erythema (P < 0.001), swelling (P < 0.001), and pain (P = 0.007). Late infections were more likely to have pocket erosion (P = 0.005) and valvular vegetations (P = 0.009). In bacteremic subjects, early infections were more likely healthcare-associated (P < 0.001). In-hospital and 6-month mortality were equivalent. CONCLUSION: A total of 45% of patients with CIED pocket infection presented >12 months following their last CIED-related procedure. Patients with early infection were more likely to be female, on anticoagulation, and present with localized inflammation, whereas those with late infection were more likely to have CIED erosion or valvular endocarditis.

Health care-associated hepatitis C virus infections attributed to narcotic diversion.

BACKGROUND: Three cases of genetically related hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection that were unattributable to infection control breaches were identified at a health care facility. OBJECTIVE: To investigate HCV transmission from an HCV-infected health care worker to patients through drug diversion. DESIGN: Cluster and look-back investigations. SETTING: Acute care hospital and affiliated multispecialty clinic. PATIENTS: Inpatients and outpatients during the period of HCV transmission. MEASUREMENTS: Employee work and narcotic dispensing records, blood testing for HCV antibody and RNA, and sequencing of the NS5B gene and the hypervariable region 1 of the E2 gene. RESULTS: 21 employees were recorded as being at work or as retrieving a narcotic from an automated dispensing cabinet in an area where a narcotic was administered to each of the 3 case patients; all employees provided blood samples for HCV testing. One employee was infected with HCV that had more than 95% NS5B sequence homology with the HCV strains of the 3 case patients. Quasi-species analysis showed close genetic relatedness with variants from each of the case patients and more than 97.9% nucleotide identity. The employee acknowledged parenteral opiate diversion. An investigation identified 6132 patients at risk for exposure to HCV because of the drug diversion. Of the 3929 living patients, 3444 (87.7%) were screened for infection. Two additional cases of genetically related HCV infection attributable to the employee were identified. LIMITATION: Of the living patients at risk for HCV exposure, 12.3% were not tested. CONCLUSION: Five cases of HCV infection occurring over 3 to 4 years were attributed to drug diversion by an HCV-infected health care worker. Studies of drug diversion and assessments of strategies to prevent narcotics tampering in all health care settings are needed. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: None.

HCV recurrence in HIV-infected patients after liver transplant.

Patients coinfected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV undergoing liver transplantation (LT) are at risk of early, aggressive HCV recurrence. This study investigates the use of frequent protocol-driven biopsies to identify HCV recurrence post LT in coinfected patients. Five consecutive HIV/HCV-coinfected patients underwent LT. Liver biopsies were obtained post LT at 1 hour; days 7, 120, and 365; then annually; and as clinically indicated. Stage 2 (Ishak) or higher fibrosis occurred in 4 of the 5 patients by 60, 120, 270, and 365 days. Two patients died of HCV recurrence and liver failure at 6 and 35 months post LT. Three patients survived more than 4 years after LT, 2 having sustained virologic responses to anti-HCV treatment. Another has histologic recurrence not responding to treatment. Hepatitis C virus recurrence can be rapid and aggressive after LT in HIV-coinfected patients. Serial biopsies identify recurrence early, allowing for prompt initiation of treatment.

Improving Value of Care: Cessation of Screening Urine Culture Prior to Orthopedic and Spinal Surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of cessation of screening urine cultures on surgical site infection (SSI) incidence in clinical practice. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Our study included patients undergoing hip replacement, knee replacement, spinal fusion, and laminectomy 12 months before (preintervention) and after (postintervention) cessation of preoperative screening urine cultures on June 1, 2017, at our institution. Urine cultures and urinalyses performed within 30 days before surgery during the 12 months before and after cessation were reviewed. SSI surveillance was performed in accordance with the methods of the National Healthcare Safety Network. RESULTS: A total of 2754 patients were included (1286 preintervention and 1468 postintervention). In the preintervention period, 1141 urine cultures were performed, compared to 153 in the postintervention period; 35 and 6 episodes of asymptomatic bacteriuria were treated, respectively. The occurrence of SSI did not differ noticeably between time periods (1.2% vs 0.7%, P=.24), and quarterly incidences of SSI were unchanged. The rate of SSI was significantly lower in the postintervention period for laminectomy (3.0% vs 0.3%, P=.02). CONCLUSION: An 86.6% (153 vs 1141) reduction in screening urine cultures over a 12-month period was associated with a reduction of 988 unnecessary urine cultures, an 82.8% (6 vs 35) decline in inappropriate antibiotic treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria, and no increase in SSI incidence after hip replacement, knee replacement, spinal fusion, or laminectomy procedures. No value of screening urine cultures before clean surgery was identified.

The validity of validation: A practical assessment.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the time to achieve reliable reporting of electronic health record data compared with manual reporting during validation. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of aggregate data for number of patients present, number of patients with a central venous catheter, and number of patients with an indwelling urinary catheter during validation of an electronic health record reporting tool. SETTING: Mayo Clinic Health System in Wisconsin. PARTICIPANTS: Mayo Clinic infection prevention and control staff, unit champions, and all inpatients. METHODS: We simultaneously collected electronic and manual counts of device data and compared discrepancies to determine their source. If manual data entry was incorrect, manual counts were coded as inaccurate. If electronically abstracted data did not reflect an accurate count, errors were attributed to the system. Data were compared using standard statistical methods. RESULTS: Within 30 days after beginning validation of electronic reporting for central venous catheter days and urinary catheter days, electronic counts were durably more reliable than manual counts. CONCLUSIONS: Manual validation for capturing and reporting electronic data and reporting can be shorter than the 90 days currently mandated by National Healthcare Safety Network criteria. Compared with a longer validation period, a shorter validation period may yield substantial savings while achieving the same validity.

Long-term follow-up of post-cardiac surgery Mycobacterium chimaera infections: A 5-center case series.

OBJECTIVES: In multiple countries, endovascular/disseminated Mycobacterium chimaera infections have occurred in post-cardiac surgery patients in association with contaminated, widely-distributed cardiac bypass heater-cooler devices. To contribute to long-term characterization of this recently recognized infection, we describe the clinical course of 28 patients with 3-7 years of follow-up for survivors. METHODS: Identified at five hospitals in the United States 2010-2016, post-cardiac surgery patients in the cohort had growth of Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC)/M. chimaera from a sterile site or surgical wound, or a clinically compatible febrile illness with granulomatous inflammation on biopsy. Case follow-up was conducted in May 2019. RESULTS: Of 28 patients, infection appeared to be localized to the sternum in four patients. Among 18 with endovascular/disseminated infection who received combination anti-mycobacterial treatment and had sufficient follow-up, 39% appeared to have controlled infection (>12 months), 56% died, and one patient is alive with relapsed bacteremia. While the number of patients is small and interpretation is limited, four (67%) of six patients who had cardiac prosthesis removal/replacement appeared to have controlled infection compared to three (25%) of 12 with retained cardiac prosthesis (p >0.14; Fisher's exact test). CONCLUSIONS: Given poor response to treatment and potential for delayed relapses, post-cardiac surgery M. chimaera infection warrants aggressive treatment and long-term monitoring.

Timing of antimicrobial prophylaxis and the risk of surgical site infections: results from the Trial to Reduce Antimicrobial Prophylaxis Errors.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study is to determine the optimal timing for surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis (AMP). SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: National AMP guidelines should be supported by evidence from large contemporary data sets. METHODS: Twenty-nine hospitals prospectively obtained information on AMP from 4472 randomly selected cardiac, hip/knee arthroplasty, and hysterectomy cases. Surgical site infections (SSIs) were ascertained through routine surveillance, using National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance system methodology. The association between the prophylaxis timing and the occurrence of SSI was assessed using conditional logistic regression (conditioning on hospital). RESULTS: One-hundred thirteen SSI were detected in 109 patients. SSI risk increased incrementally as the interval of time between antibiotic infusion and the incision increased (overall association between timing and infection risk P = 0.04). When antibiotics requiring long infusion times (vancomycin and fluoroquinolones) were excluded, the infection risk following administration of antibiotic within 30 minutes prior to incision was 1.6% compared with 2.4% associated with administration of antibiotic between 31 to 60 minutes prior to surgery (OR: 1.74; 95% confidence interval, 0.98-3.04). The infection risk increased as the time interval between preoperative antibiotic and incision increased or if the antibiotic was first infused after incision. Intraoperative redosing (performed in only 21% of long operations) appeared to reduce SSI risk in operations lasting more than 4 hours (OR of 3.08 with no redosing; 95% confidence interval 0.74-12.90), but only when the preoperative dose was given correctly. CONCLUSIONS: These data from a large multicenter collaborative study confirm and extend previous observations and show a consistent relationship between the timing of AMP and SSI risk with a trend toward lower risk occurring when AMP with cephalosporins and other antibiotics with short infusion times were given within 30 minutes prior to incision.

Adenovirus pseudo-outbreak associated with bronchoscopy.

Introduction and regular application of multiplex polymerase chain reaction analysis of bronchoalveolar specimens for community-acquired respiratory viruses in January 2017 led to the identification of adenovirus in multiple patients in a surgical intensive unit in July 2017, which was attributed to a pseudo-outbreak.

Transmission of West Nile virus from an organ donor to four transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND: In August 2002, fever and mental-status changes developed in recipients of organs from a common donor. Transmission of West Nile virus through organ transplantation was suspected. METHODS: We reviewed medical records, conducted interviews, and collected blood and tissue samples for testing with a variety of assays. Persons who donated blood to the organ donor and associated blood components were identified and tested for West Nile virus. RESULTS: We identified West Nile virus infection in the organ donor and in all four organ recipients. Encephalitis developed in three of the organ recipients, and febrile illness developed in one. Three recipients became seropositive for West Nile virus IgM antibody; the fourth recipient had brain tissue that was positive for West Nile virus by isolation and nucleic acid and antigen assays. Serum specimens obtained from the organ donor before and immediately after blood transfusions showed no evidence of West Nile virus; however, serum and plasma samples obtained at the time of organ recovery were positive on viral nucleic acid testing and viral culture. The organ donor had received blood transfusions from 63 donors. A review of blood donors and follow-up testing identified one donor who had viremia at the time of donation and who became seropositive for West Nile virus IgM antibodies during the next two months. CONCLUSIONS: Our investigation of this cluster documents the transmission of West Nile virus by organ transplantation. Organ recipients receiving immunosuppressive drugs may be at high risk for severe disease after West Nile virus infection. Blood transfusion was the probable source of the West Nile virus viremia in the organ donor.

The cost of a recalcitrant intravenous drug user with serial cases of endocarditis: Need for guidelines to improve the continuum of care.

We report a case of an intravenous drug user (IVDU) patient who had 4 episodes of endocarditis within a 2-year time period in rural Georgia. The institutional cost was approximately $380,000. The lack of an established transitional care plan for IVDUs to outpatient care is a common phenomenon at institutions. Guidelines are essential to optimize the quality of care rendered to IVDUs with such infections, to assist providers in utilizing limited resources, and to limit the cost to the institutions.

Effect of antiviral chemoprophylaxis on adverse clinical outcomes associated with cytomegalovirus after liver transplantation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess t he association be tweencytomegalovirus (CMV) serology of donor and recipient and adverse outcomes afterliver transplantation in the era of effective antiviral chemoprophylaxis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of 193 consecutive patients undergoing their first liver transplantation between February 1998 and July 2000 with targeted and preemptive ganciclovir chemoprophylaxis. Patients were divided into 4 groups by CMV serology of donor and recipient: donor-/recipient-; donor-/recipient+; donor+/recipient+; and donor+/recipient-. Survival to the end points of retransplantation, death, or survival to 1 year after transplantation (whichever occurred first) was assessed. Rates of bacterial, fungal, and CMV Infection and of CMV disease were recorded and compared. RESULTS: No significant differences were observed in the rates of retransplantation, death, or survival to 1 year among the 4 groups of patients. Despite significantly higher rates of CMV infection in the donor+ groups, there were no differences in the rates of bacterial or fungal Infection or of CMV disease. Rejection occurred least frequently in the donor-/recipient- group. CONCLUSION: The adverse effects of CMV on outcomes after liver transplantation have been diminished in the era of effective antiviral chemoprophylaxis.

Outbreak of toxic anterior segment syndrome following cataract surgery associated with impurities in autoclave steam moisture.

BACKGROUND: Toxic anterior segment syndrome (TASS), a complication of cataract surgery, is a sterile inflammation of the anterior chamber of the eye. An outbreak of TASS was recognized at an outpatient surgical center and its affiliated hospital in December 2002. METHODS: Medical records of patients who underwent cataract surgery during the outbreak were reviewed, and surgical team members who participated in the operations were interviewed. Potential causes of TASS were identified and eliminated. Feedwater from autoclave steam generators and steam condensates were analyzed by use of spectroscopy and ion chromatography. RESULTS: During the outbreak, 8 (38%) of 21 cataract operations were complicated by TASS, compared with 2 (0.07%) of 2,713 operations performed from January 1996 through November 2002. Results of an initial investigation suggested that cataract surgical equipment may have been contaminated by suboptimal equipment reprocessing or as a result of personnel changes. The frequency of TASS decreased (1 of 44 cataract operations) after reassignment of personnel and revision of equipment reprocessing procedures. Further investigation identified the presence of impurities (eg, sulfates, copper, zinc, nickel, and silica) in autoclave steam moisture, which was attributed to improper maintenance of the autoclave steam generator in the outpatient surgical center. When impurities in autoclave steam moisture were eliminated, no cases of TASS were observed after more than 1,000 cataract operations. CONCLUSION: Suboptimal reprocessing of cataract surgical equipment may evolve over time in busy, multidisciplinary surgical centers. Clinically significant contamination of surgical equipment may result from inappropriate maintenance of steam sterilization systems. Standardization of protocols for reprocessing of cataract surgical equipment may prevent outbreaks of TASS and may be of assistance during outbreak investigations.

Spectrum of pneumonia in the current era of liver transplantation and its effect on survival.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the frequency and microbial pattern of pneumonia and its effect on survival in the current era of orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT). PATIENTS AND METHODS: At the Mayo Clinic in Jacksonville, Fla, the medical records of consecutive patients who underwent their first OLT between February 1998 and January 2001 were retrospectively reviewed through the end of the first year posttransplantation. RESULTS: Of 401 study patients, 20 developed pneumonia; estimates of incidence with corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) at 1 and 12 months were 3% (1%-5%) and 5% (3%-7%), respectively. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the predominant microorganism identified (in 8 of 14 patients) during the first month after transplantation. Between the second and sixth months, 2 of the 4 cases of pneumonia were due to fungal infections of Aspergillus fumigatus. Cytomegalovirus was associated with Aspergillus in 1 patient. No other viral or Pneumocystis carnil pneumonia was diagnosed. There were only 2 cases of pneumonia between 7 months and 1 year after transplantation, neither of which was fungal. Approximately 40% (95% CI, 14%-58%) of patients with pneumonia died within 1 month after diagnosis. The relative risk of mortality in the first month after onset of pneumonia was estimated to be 24 (95% CI, 10-54), which is strong evidence of increased risk of mortality with pneumonia (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Pneumonia appears to occur less often after OLT than previously reported but still has a substantial negative effect on survival. In the early period after OLT, P. aeruginosa continues to be the predominant organism causing pneumonia.

Assessment of an automated surveillance system for detection of initial ventilator-associated events.

Surveillance for initial ventilator-associated events (VAEs) was automated and compared with nonautomated review of episodes of mechanical ventilation. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of automated surveillance were very high (>93%), and automated surveillance reduced the time spent on detection of VAEs by >90%.

A randomized, prospective, double-blinded evaluation of selective bowel decontamination in liver transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial infection is a frequent, morbid, and mortal complication of liver transplantation. Selective bowel decontamination (SBD) has been reported to reduce the rate of bacterial infection after liver transplantation in uncontrolled trials, but benefits of this intervention have been less clear in controlled studies. METHODS: Eighty candidates for liver transplantation were randomly assigned in a double-blinded fashion to an SBD regimen consisting of gentamicin 80 mg+polymyxin E 100 mg+nystatin 2 million units (37 patients) or to nystatin alone (43 patients). Both treatments were administered orally in 10 ml (increasing to 20 ml, according to predefined criteria), four times daily, through day 21 after transplantation. Anal fecal swab cultures were performed on days 0, 4, 7, and 21. Rates of infection, death, and charges for medical care were assessed from day 0 through day 60. RESULTS: More than 85% of patients in both treatment groups began study treatment more than 3 days before transplantation. Rates of infection (32.4 vs. 27.9%), death (5.4 vs. 4.7%), or charges for medical care (median $194,000 vs. $163,000) were not reduced in patients assigned to SBD. On days 0, 4, 7, and 21, growth of aerobic gram-negative flora in fecal cultures of patients assigned to SBD was significantly less than that of patients taking nystatin alone; growth of aerobic gram-positive flora, anaerobes, and yeast was not significantly different. CONCLUSION: Routine use of SBD in patients undergoing liver transplantation is not associated with significant benefit.

Aspergillosis related to long-term nasal corticosteroid use.

Aspergillus is a ubiquitous mold that can cause several types of symptomatic infections: allergic aspergillosis, typically in young atopic patients; aspergillomas (often referred to as fungus balls); and invasive aspergillosis, typically seen in debilitated or immunocompromised patients. We describe an 85-year-old woman who was not immunocompromised but had invasive aspergillosis of the paranasal sinus that resulted in unilateral headache and retrobulbar optic neuropathy. After extensive differential diagnostic examination, we concluded that the condition was possibly related to the long-term use of nasal corticosteroids (fluticasone propionate aqueous nasal spray). Surgical removal of solid masses of Aspergillus organisms followed by extended treatment with antifungal agents resulted in a favorable outcome.

Intravascular catheter-related bloodstream infection.

Intravascular catheters required for the care of many hospitalized patients can give rise to bloodstream infection, a complication of care that has occurred most frequently in intensive care unit (ICU) settings. Elucidation of the pathogenesis of catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs) has guided development of effective diagnostic, management, and prevention strategies. When CRBSIs occur in the ICU, physicians must be prepared to recognize and treat them. Prevention of these infections requires careful attention to optimal catheter selection, insertion and maintenance, and to removal of catheters when they are no longer needed. This review provides a succinct summary of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and microbiology of CRBSIs and a review of current guidance for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of these infections.