Missed foot fractures in multiple trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: Missed or underestimated injuries are one of the central problems in trauma care. Foot injuries can easily be missed because they lay beyond the regularly screened field of a trauma computer tomography scan (CT scan). During primary and secondary survey a careful examination of the extremities often becomes of secondary interest in the severely injured patient. METHODS: Thirty-four thousand ninety-one multiple trauma patients of the TraumaRegister DGU® were evaluated from 2002 to 2014. We differentiated between patients with foot injuries, patients with missed foot injuries and patients without foot injuries. Included were ankle fractures, calcaneus fractures, talus fractures, metatarsal fractures, toe fractures, amputation, soft tissue injuries and/or ligamentous injuries. RESULTS: Summarized evaluation of 34,091 trauma patients showed a share of 2532 patients with foot injuries. Time of diagnosis was documented in 2199 cases. 2055 patients had early diagnosed foot injuries and 144 patients had initially missed foot injuries. Missed foot injuries were especially found in patients with car accidents or fall from ≥3 m. Patients with higher Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) or lower Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) were not significantly more affected by missed foot injuries. Missing foot injuries was also not caused by injury severity or higher age. CONCLUSIONS: Our data highlights the need of careful evaluation of the feet during primary and secondary survey particularly when a tibia or femur fracture is diagnosed. Special attention should be turned to patients after car accidents or fall from great height. Suicide victims also need major attention. Patients with early operations also need careful examination and tertiary survey is highly recommended.

Puma, but not noxa is essential for oligodendroglial cell death.

The mechanisms involved in oligodendroglial cell death in human demyelinating diseases are only partly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the BH3 only protein Puma, but not Noxa, is essential for oligodendroglial cell death in toxic demyelination induced by the copper chelator cuprizone. Primary oligodendrocytes derived from Noxa- or Puma-deficient mice showed comparable differentiation to wild-type cells, but Puma-deficient oligodendrocytes were less susceptible to spontaneous, staurosporine, or nitric oxide-induced cell death. Furthermore, Puma was expressed in oligodendrocytes in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions and Puma mRNA levels were upregulated in primary human oligodendrocytes upon cell death induction by staurosporine. Our data demonstrate that Puma is pivotal for oligodendroglial cell death induced by different cell death stimuli and might play a role in oligodendroglial cell death in MS.

[The guidelines of the Federal Joint Committee on acute pain management : Background and consequences for the practice in hospitals]. / Die Vorgaben des Gemeinsamen Bundesausschusses zum Akutschmerzmanagement : Hintergründe und Konsequenzen für die Praxis im Krankenhaus.

The quality of postoperative pain therapy in Germany shows a heterogeneous treatment practice and large differences in quality between individual institutions, The patient representatives in the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) have therefore decisively campaigned for many years that instruments of non-legislative standards are employed in order to noticeably improve the quality of perioperative pain therapy for patients in Germany. As a result of these efforts, in October 2020 a binding specification for internal quality management was included in the quality management guidelines (QM-RL) by the G­BA. This describes in concrete terms the structural and procedural requirements for an internal quality management of acute pain for all institutions in which operations and comparable potentially painful interventions are carried out. This article describes the content of this regulation and the resulting consequences for the institutions, the medical and administrative management and especially the role of anesthesia.

Multiple control of interleukin-8 gene expression.

Interleukin (IL)-8, a prototypic human chemokine, was detected more than a decade ago as the founding member of the chemokine superfamily. One of the most remarkable properties of IL-8 is the variation of its expression levels. In healthy tissues, IL-8 is barely detectable, but it is rapidly induced by ten- to 100-fold in response to proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor or IL-1, bacterial or viral products, and cellular stress. Recently, significant advances in the understanding of signaling pathways, which coordinately regulate IL-8 transcription as well as mRNA stabilization in response to external stimuli, have been made. Maximal IL-8 amounts are generated by a combination of three different mechanisms: first, derepression of the gene promoter; second, transcriptional activation of the gene by nuclear factor-kappaB and JUN-N-terminal protein kinase pathways; and third, stabilization of the mRNA by the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In that way, cells are able to rapidly increase and at the same time, to fine-tune the amount of IL-8 secreted and thereby control the extent of leukocytes attracted to sites of tissue injury.

A century of population aging in Germany.

The population of Germany is becoming progressively more elderly, and this article focuses on the causes and implications of that trend. We discuss the demographic processes that occurred in Germany in the second half of the 20th century and describe the developments that the population of Germany will undergo in the next 50 years, which promise to exert a profound influence on the economic and social future of the country.

c-Jun controls histone modifications, NF-kappaB recruitment, and RNA polymerase II function to activate the ccl2 gene.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1)-induced mRNA expression of ccl2 (also called MCP-1), a prototypic highly regulated inflammatory gene, is severely suppressed in cells lacking c-Jun or Jun N-terminal protein kinase 1 (JNK1)/JNK2 genes and is only partially restored in cells expressing a c-Jun(SS63/73AA) mutant protein. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation to identify three c-Jun-binding sites located in the far 5' region close to the transcriptional start site and in the far 3' region of murine and human ccl2 genes. Mutational analysis revealed that the latter two sites contribute to ccl2 transcription in response to the presence of IL-1 or of ectopically expressed c-Jun-ATF-2 dimers. Further experiments comparing wild-type and c-Jun-deficient cells revealed that c-Jun regulates Ser10 phosphorylation of histone H3, acetylation of histones H3 and H4, and recruitment of histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3), NF-kappaB subunits, and RNA polymerase II across the ccl2 locus. c-Jun also coimmunoprecipitated with p65 NF-kappaB and HDAC3. Based on DNA microarray analysis, c-Jun was required for full expression of 133 out of 162 IL-1-induced genes. For inflammatory genes, these data support the idea of an activator function of c-Jun that is executed by multiple mechanisms, including phosphorylation-dependent interaction with p65 NF-kappaB and HDAC3 at the level of chromatin.

Transcriptional regulation of EGR-1 by the interleukin-1-JNK-MKK7-c-Jun pathway.

The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1 activates several hundred genes within the same cell. This occurs in part by activation of the MKK7-JNK-c-Jun signaling pathway whose precise role in the regulation of individual inflammatory genes is still incompletely understood. To identify the genes that are under specific control of activated JNK, we used a JNK-MKK7 fusion protein. Genome-wide microarray analysis revealed EGR-1 as the transcript that was most strongly induced by JNK-MKK7. IL-1-stimulated EGR-1 mRNA and protein expression were impaired in cells lacking JNK or c-Jun. Transcriptional activation of the EGR-1 promoter by JNK-MKK7 or by IL-1 required a single upstream AP-1 site and three distal serum-response elements (SRE). Reconstitution experiments in c-Jun-deficient cells revealed that c-Jun is required for EGR-1 transcription through both the AP-1 site and the distal SREs. By chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis, we found IL-1-inducible recruitment of c-Jun to the AP-1 site and to the region containing the three distal SREs. These experiments suggest that c-Jun plays a dual role in EGR-1 transcription. It directly binds to the AP-1 element, and at the same time it is essential for promoter activation through the three distal SREs by an indirect unknown mechanism. As predicted by TRANSFAC analysis and verified by ChIP experiments, IL-1-induced EGR-1 protein binds to the promoter regions of inflammatory mediators such as IL-6, IL-8, and CCL2. Furthermore, short interfering RNA-mediated suppression of EGR-1 partially suppresses IL-1-inducible transcription of IL-8, IL-6, and CCL2. In summary, we provide novel evidence for a complex c-Jun-mediated mechanism that is essential for inducible EGR-1 expression. We identify this pathway as a previously unrecognized part of a multistep gene regulatory network that controls cytokine and chemokine expression via the IL-1-MKK7-JNK-c-Jun-EGR-1 pathway.

MEK1-dependent delayed expression of Fos-related antigen-1 counteracts c-Fos and p65 NF-kappaB-mediated interleukin-8 transcription in response to cytokines or growth factors.

Binding sites for the dimeric transcription factor activator protein (AP)-1 are found in numerous immunoregulatory and inflammatory genes. The precise mechanisms by which AP-1 activates or represses immune response genes and in particular the roles of individual AP-1 subunits in inflammatory responses are largely unknown. We report here that c-Fos and Fos-related antigen-1 (Fra-1), two inducible components of AP-1, are recruited to the endogenous interleukin (IL)-8 promoter in an IL-1-dependent manner. c-Fos activates IL-8 transcription and synergizes in this effect with p65 NF-kappaB. In contrast, Fra-1 strongly inhibits inducible IL-8 transcription. Fra-1 activation involves its stabilization, ubiquitination, and interaction with histone deacetylase-1. Blockade of MEK1 by PD98059 suppresses c-Fos and Fra-1 expression and, thus, affects two counteractive signals for IL-8 mRNA synthesis simultaneously. This disturbs the inducible recruitment of TATA box-binding protein and RNA polymerase II to the IL-8 promoter. Additional experiments reveal that, in conjunction with p65 NF-kappaB, the MEK1-ERK-dependent synthesis of c-Fos and Fra-1 serves to adjust the overall expression level of IL-8 in response to two of its physiological inducers, IL-1 and epidermal growth factor. Relative to c-Fos, the delayed recruitment of Fra-1 to the IL-8 promoter provides an example how AP-1 subunits may dampen excessive chemokine synthesis.

Simultaneous blockade of NFkappaB, JNK, and p38 MAPK by a kinase-inactive mutant of the protein kinase TAK1 sensitizes cells to apoptosis and affects a distinct spectrum of tumor necrosis factor [corrected] target genes.

The inflammatory response is characterized by the induction (or repression) of hundreds of genes. The activity of many of these genes is controlled by MAPKs and the IkappaB kinase-NFkappaB pathway. To reveal the effects of blocking these pathways simultaneously, fibroblasts were infected with retroviruses encoding TAK1K63W, an inactive mutant of the protein kinase TAK1. Expression of this protein inhibited tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-induced activation of NFkappaB, JNK, and p38 MAPK and sensitized the cells to TNF-induced apoptosis. 23 different microarray experiments were used to analyze the expression of >7000 genes in these cells. We identified 518 genes that were regulated by TNF in both TAK1K63W-expressing cells and control cells, 37 genes induced by TNF only when TAK1K63W was present, and 48 TNF-induced genes that were suppressed by TAK1K63W. The TNF-inducible genes that were most strongly suppressed by TAK1K63W, ccl2, ccl7, ccl5, cxcl1, cxcl5, cxcl10, saa3, and slpi also had much lower basal levels of expression, indicating that TAK1 also played a role in their normal expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation studies on four of these genes suggested that inactivation of TAK1 activity led to direct suppression of expression at the transcriptional level because of impaired recruitment of RNA polymerase II to their promoters. ccl2 induction by TNF or interleukin-1 was also suppressed in cells that expressed TAK1 antisense RNA or that were genetically deficient in JNK1/2 or p65 NFkappaB. These data suggest that regulation of the expression of a selected group of inflammation-related genes is funneled through TAK1, making it a potentially useful target for more specific anti-inflammatory drug development.

Constitutive and interleukin-1-inducible phosphorylation of p65 NF-{kappa}B at serine 536 is mediated by multiple protein kinases including I{kappa}B kinase (IKK)-{alpha}, IKK{beta}, IKK{epsilon}, TRAF family member-associated (TANK)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), and an unknown kinase and couples p65 to TATA-binding protein-associated factor II31-mediated interleukin-8 transcription.

Phosphorylation of NF-kappaB p65(RelA) serine 536 is physiologically induced in response to a variety of proinflammatory stimuli, but the responsible pathways have not been conclusively unraveled, and the function of this phosphorylation is largely elusive. In contrast to previous studies, we found no evidence for a role of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, p38 kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in interleukin-1- or tumor necrosis factor-induced Ser-536 phosphorylation, as revealed by pharmacological inhibitors. We were not able to suppress Ser-536 phosphorylation by either RNA interference directed at IkappaB kinase (IKK)-alpha/beta (the best characterized Ser-536 kinases so far) or the IKKbeta inhibitor SC-514 or dominant negative mutants of either IKK. A green fluorescent protein p65 fusion protein was phosphorylated at Ser-536 in the absence of IKK activation, suggesting the existence of IKKalpha/beta-independent Ser-536 kinases. Chromatographic fractionation of cell extracts allowed the identification of two distinct enzymatic activities phosphorylating Ser-536. Peak 1 represents an unknown kinase, whereas peak 2 contained IKKalpha, IKKbeta, IKKepsilon, and TBK1. Overexpressed IKKepsilon and TBK1 phosphorylate Ser-536 in vivo and in vitro. Reconstitution of mutant p65 proteins in p65-deficient fibroblasts that either mimicked phosphorylation (S536D) or preserved a predicted hydrogen bond between Ser-536 and Asp-533 (S536N) revealed that phosphorylation of Ser-536 favors interleukin-8 transcription mediated by TATA-binding protein-associated factor II31, a component of TFIID. In the absence of phosphorylation, the hydrogen bond favors binding of the corepressor amino-terminal enhancer of split to the p65 terminal transactivation domain. Collectively, our results provide evidence for at least five kinases that converge on Ser-536 of p65 and a novel function for this phosphorylation site in the recruitment of components of the basal transcriptional machinery to the interleukin-8 promoter.

Disruption of the c-JUN-JNK complex by a cell-permeable peptide containing the c-JUN delta domain induces apoptosis and affects a distinct set of interleukin-1-induced inflammatory genes.

The transcription factor activator protein (AP)-1 plays crucial roles in proliferation, cell death, and the immune response. c-JUN is an important component of AP-1, but only very few c-JUN response genes have been identified to date. Activity of c-JUN is controlled by NH2-terminal phosphorylation (JNP) of its transactivation domain by a family of JUN-NH2-terminal protein kinases (JNK). JNK form a stable complex with c-JUN in vitro and in vivo. We have targeted this interaction by means of a cell-permeable peptide containing the JNK-binding (delta) domain of human c-JUN. This peptide strongly and specifically induced apoptosis in HeLa tumor cells, which was paralleled by inhibition of serum-induced c-JUN phosphorylation and up-regulation of the cell cycle inhibitor p21cip/waf. Application of the c-JUN peptide to interleukin (IL)-1-stimulated human primary fibroblasts resulted in up-regulation of four genes, namely COX-2, MnSOD, I kappa B alpha, and MAIL and down-regulation of 10 genes, namely CCL8, mPGES, SAA1, hIAP-1, hIAP-2, pent(r)axin-3, CXCL10, IL-1 beta, ICAM-1, and CCL2. Only a small group of genes, namely pent(r)axin-3, CXCL10, ICAM-1, and IL-1 beta, was inhibited by both the c-JUN peptide and the JNK inhibitor SP600125. Thereby, and by additional experiments using small interfering RNA to suppress endogenous c-JUN we identify for the first time three distinct groups of inflammatory genes whose IL-1-induced expression depends on c-JUN, on JNK, or on both. These results shed further light on the complexity of c-JUN-JNK-mediated gene regulation and also highlight the potential use of dissecting signaling downstream from JNK to specifically target proliferative diseases or the inflammatory response.

Activation of NF-kappaB and IL-8 by Yersinia enterocolitica invasin protein is conferred by engagement of Rac1 and MAP kinase cascades.

Yersinia enterocolitica triggers activation of the nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and production of the proinflammatory chemokine interleukin (IL)-8 in intestinal epithelial cells. This activation is due to adhesion of the bacteria via their outer membrane protein invasin to the host cells. Using Clostridium difficile toxins that specifically inactivate small GTPases, and transfection of inhibitory proteins of the Rho-GTPases, we demonstrate that Rac1, but not Cdc42 or Rho, is required for activation of NF-kappaB by invasin. Invasin activated the mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) p38 and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK) but not extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK). The functional relevance of these pathways for invasin-mediated IL-8 expression was assessed by protein kinase inhibitors and dominant-negative kinase mutants. While NF-kappaB and JNK contribute to IL-8 transcription, p38 MAPK also acts through stabilization of IL-8 mRNA, as confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR and electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Transfection experiments with I-kappaB kinase (IKK)1 and IKK2 mutants indicate that the release of NF-kappaB from its cytoplasmic inhibitor I-kappaB and its translocation into the nucleus is mediated by these kinases. Our data identify Rac1 as a key intermediate in invasin-triggered IL-8 synthesis and demonstrate that maximum IL-8 induction involves several MAP kinase cascades.

Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced p38 MAPK-dependent phosphorylation of RelA at the interleukin-8 promotor.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the major cause of community-acquired pneumonia and one of the most common causes of death by infectious disease in industrialized countries. Little is known concerning the mechanisms of target cell activation in this disease. The present study shows that NF-kappaB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways contribute to chemokine synthesis by lung epithelial cells in response to pneumococci. In infected lungs of mice pneumococci stimulate expression of the interleukin (IL)-8 homolog keratinocyte-derived chemokine and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, as well as activate p38 MAPK. Human bronchial epithelium was chosen as a cellular model, because it establishes the first barrier against pathogens, and little is known about its function in innate immunity. Pneumococci infection induces expression of IL-8 and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor as well as activation of p38 MAPK in human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B). Inhibition of p38 MAPK activity by SB202190 and SB203580 blocks pneumococci-induced cytokine release. In mouse lungs in vivo as well as in cultured cells, pneumococci activate NF-kappaBinanIkappaB kinase-dependent manner. Inhibition of p38 MAPK by chemical inhibitors or by RNA interference targeting p38alpha reduces pneumococci-induced NF-kappaB-dependent gene transcription. Blockade of p38 activity did not affect inducible nuclear translocation and recruitment of NF-kappaB/RelA to the IL-8 promotor but did reduce the level of phosphorylated RelA (serine 536) at IL-8 promotor and inhibited pneumococci-mediated recruitment of RNA polymerase II to IL-8 promotor. Thus, p38 MAPK contributes to pneumococci-induced chemokine transcription by modulating p65 NF-kappaB-mediated transactivation.