Alkannin Attenuates Amyloid ß Aggregation and Alzheimer's Disease Pathology.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is accompanied by memory decline and cognitive dysfunction. Aggregated amyloid ß formation and accumulation may be one of the underlying mechanisms of the pathophysiology of AD. Therefore, compounds that can inhibit amyloid ß aggregation may be useful for treatment. Based on this hypothesis, we screened plant compounds used in Kampo medicine for chemical chaperone activity and identified that alkannin had this property. Further analysis indicated that alkannin could inhibit amyloid ß aggregation. Importantly, we also found that alkannin inhibited amyloid ß aggregation after aggregates had already formed. Through the analysis of circular dichroism spectra, alkannin was found to inhibit ß-sheet structure formation, which is an aggregation-prone toxic structure. Furthermore, alkannin attenuated amyloid ß-induced neuronal cell death in PC12 cells, ameliorated amyloid ß aggregation in the AD model of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), and inhibited chemotaxis observed in AD C. elegans, suggesting that alkannin could potentially inhibit neurodegeneration in vivo. Overall, these results suggest that alkannin may have novel pharmacological properties for inhibiting amyloid ß aggregation and neuronal cell death in AD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Aggregated amyloid ß formation and accumulation is one of the underlying mechanisms of the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. We found that alkannin had chemical chaperone activity, which can inhibit ß-sheet structure formation of amyloid ß and its aggregation, neuronal cell death, and Alzheimer's disease phenotype in C. elegans. Overall, alkannin may have novel pharmacological properties for inhibiting amyloid ß aggregation and neuronal cell death in Alzheimer's disease.

COOH-terminal fragment of APP interacts with p62, forms an aggregate, and induces autophagic degradation in Alzheimer's cell model.

Alzheimer's disease is an intractable disease, and the accumulation of amyloid ß in the brain is thought to be involved in the onset of the disease. Additionally, abnormal protein accumulation due to autophagic deficiency may also be involved in disease progression. Autophagy involves a mechanism called selective autophagy. However, the relationship between selective autophagy and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) remains unclear. In the present study, we analyzed the interaction between p62, an adapter protein, and an APP-related molecule and found that p62 interacted with the COOH-terminal fragment of APP (C60). When C60 and p62 are overexpressed, aggregates are formed and C60 is degraded by autophagy. These aggregates cannot be easily degraded, even with a reducing agent. We also found that autophagosome- and lysosome marker-positive vesicles were formed in the C60- and p62-expressing cells. Superresolution technology also revealed that p62-C60-positive autophagosomes were formed in the cells. Overall, these results suggest that p62 may bind with C60 to form aggregates and induce autophagy in autophagosomes. These results reveal one of the mechanisms underlying the progression of Alzheimer's disease, in which selective autophagy may be involved.

Insulin Enhances Gene Expression of Midnolin, a Novel Genetic Risk Factor for Parkinson's Disease, via Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase, Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase and Multiple Transcription Factors in SH-SY5Y Cells.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease. Although many monogenic variants have been identified that cause familial PD, most cases are sporadic and the mechanisms of sporadic PD onset remain unclear. We previously identified midnolin (MIDN) as a novel genetic risk factor for PD in a Japanese population. MIDN copy number loss was strongly associated with sporadic PD, which was replicated in a British population. Furthermore, suppression of MIDN expression in rat pheochromocytoma cells inhibits neurite outgrowth and expression of Parkin ubiquitin ligase. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms of MIDN expression are unknown. We, therefore, investigated the molecular mechanism of MIDN expression in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. We found that MIDN expression was promoted by insulin via extracellular-signal regulated kinase1/2 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent pathways. In addition, MIDN promoter activity was enhanced by mutations at transcription factor AP-2 consensus sequences and reduced by mutations at cAMP response element-binding protein and activator protein 1 (AP-1) consensus sequences. The dominant-negative cAMP response element-binding protein mutant did not block MIDN promoter activity, but both the pharmacological inhibitor and decoy oligodeoxynucleotide for AP-1 significantly blocked its activity. Additionally, DNA binding of c-FOS and c-JUN to the AP-1 consensus sequence in the MIDN promoter was enhanced by insulin as determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation, which suggested that AP-1 positively regulated MIDN expression. Taken together, this study reveals molecular mechanisms of MIDN gene expression induced by insulin in neuronal cells, and drugs which promote MIDN expression may have potential to be a novel medicine for PD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: We demonstrated that insulin promotes midnolin expression via extracellular-signal regulated kinase 1/2 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathways. Furthermore, we identified the important region of the MIDN promoter and showed that transcription factors, including activator protein 1, positively regulate MIDN expression, whereas transcription factor AP-2 negatively regulates basal and insulin-induced MIDN expression. We believe that our observations are important and that they contribute to the development of novel drugs to treat Parkinson's disease.

Thermal Proteome Profiling Reveals Glutathione Peroxidase 4 as the Target of the Autophagy Inducer Conophylline.

Conophylline (CNP) is a vinca alkaloid extracted from the Tabernaemontana divaricata plant. It has been reported that CNP induces autophagy in a mammalian target of rapamycin-independent manner, and thereby inhibits protein aggregation. However, the mode of action of CNP in inducing autophagy remains unknown. In this study, we identified glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) as a CNP-binding protein by using thermal proteome profiling. The technique exploits changes in the thermal stability of proteins resulting from ligand interaction, which is capable of identifying compound-binding proteins without chemical modification. GPX4, an antioxidant protein that uses reduced glutathione as a cofactor, directly catalyzes the reduction of hydrogen peroxide, organic hydroperoxides, and lipid peroxides. GPX4 suppresses lipid peroxide accumulation, and thus plays a key role in protecting cells from oxidative damage. We found that treatment with CNP caused accumulation of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cultured cells. Furthermore, similarly with CNP treatment, GPX4 deficiency caused accumulation of lipid ROS and induced autophagy. These findings indicate that GPX4 is a direct target of CNP involved in autophagy induction. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The present study identified glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) as a binding protein of conophylline (CNP) by using thermal proteome profiling (TPP). This study showed that CNP treatment, similarly with the inhibition of GPX4, induced lipid reactive oxygen species accumulation and autophagy. The present findings suggest that GPX4 is the CNP target protein involved in autophagy induction. Furthermore, these results indicate that TPP is a useful technique for determining the mechanism of natural compounds.

Possible involvement of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal in the pathogenesis of leptin resistance in obesity.

Insensitivity to the antiobesity hormone, leptin, has been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of obesity. However, the pathological mechanisms underlying the development of leptin resistance are not well-understood. This study aimed to examine the pathological mechanisms of leptin resistance in obesity. In the present study, we found that 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE), an aldehyde, may be involved in the development of leptin resistance. The SH-SY5Y-Ob-Rb human neuroblastoma cell line, transfected to express the Ob-Rb leptin receptor stably, was treated with 4-HNE, and leptin-induced signal transduction was analyzed. We found that 4-HNE dose- and time-dependently inhibited leptin-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation, a major antiobesity signal of leptin. On the other hand, 4-HNE did not affect tyrosine phosphorylation of broad cellular proteins, suggesting that the inhibitory effect may be selective to leptin signaling. Mechanistically, 4-HNE induced the eukaryotic initiation factor 2α-CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein arm of endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of leptin resistance. Overall, these results suggest that 4-HNE may partly affect endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced unfolded protein response signaling and may be involved in the pathogenesis of leptin resistance.

Immobilization stress induces XBP1 splicing in the mouse brain.

Cells activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to cope with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. In the present study, we investigated the possible involvement of psychological stress on UPR induction in the mouse brain. When mice were exposed to immobilization stress for 8 h, XBP1 mRNA splicing was significantly induced in the hippocampus, cortex, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and brain stem. On the other hand, we did not observe any increase in XBP1 splicing in the liver, suggesting that this effect is specific to the brain. Stress-induced XBP1 splicing was attenuated 2 days after immobilization stress. We did not observe increases in any other UPR genes, such as CHOP or GRP78, in mouse brains after immobilization stress. These findings indicate an important specific role of XBP1 in response to psychological stress in the mouse brain.

TERT enhances the survival rate of human fibroblasts under endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomal stresses.

OBJECTIVE: The exposure of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus (GA), and lysosomes, to stress activates death mechanisms. Recently, telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) has been shown to be involved in cell survival. However, the relationship between TERT and the stress responses is still unclear. Here, we aimed to clarify the possible mechanisms of action through which TERT promotes cell survival by studying its effect on the stresses faced by multiple organelles in human fibroblasts. RESULTS: We found that TERT enhanced the survival rate of cells under ER stress, regardless of ER stress inducers such as tunicamycin (protein glycosylation inhibitor), thapsigargin (Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor), brefeldin A (protein transport inhibitor), or dithiothreitol (disulfide bond formation inhibitor). We also found that TERT enhanced the survival rate of cells under GA and lysosomal stresses. CONCLUSION: Collectively, these results suggest that TERT suppresses cell stress and promotes cell survival via different mechanisms. These findings may offer new insights into the implications of TERT in the treatment of stress-induced conditions such as aging, obesity, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Loss of Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase-1 Activity Induced Leptin Resistance in Neuronal Cells.

The lack of response to leptin's actions in the brain, "leptin resistance," is one of the main causes of the pathogenesis of obesity. However, although high-fat diets affect sensitivity to leptin, the underlying mechanisms of leptin resistance are still an enigma. Here we examined the effect of excess saturated fatty acids (SFAs) on leptin signaling in human neuronal cells. Palmitate, the principle source of SFAs in diet, induced leptin resistance in a human neuroblastoma cell line stably transfected with the Ob-Rb leptin receptor (SH-SY5Y-ObRb). We next investigated the function of stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1), an enzyme which converts SFAs into monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), on leptin-induced signaling. We found that reduction of SCD1 activity, through SCD1 inhibition and knockdown, impairs leptin-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation in human neuronal cells. Our findings suggested that SCD1 plays a key role in the pathophysiology of leptin resistance in neuronal cells associated with obesity.

Dehydroascorbic acid-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and leptin resistance in neuronal cells.

Due to its anti-obesity effects, an adipocyte-derived hormone, leptin, has become important for the treatment of obesity. However, most obese subjects are in a state of leptin resistance, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is suggested to be involved in the pathophysiology of leptin resistance. Dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA), an oxidized form of vitamin C, was found to be increased in diabetes. In the present study, we investigated the possible effects of DHAA on the activation of ER stress and leptin resistance. A human neuroblastoma cell line, stably transfected with the Ob-Rb leptin receptor (SH-SY5Y-ObRb), was treated with DHAA. We found that DHAA upregulated ER stress-related genes such as GRP78, CHOP, and spliced XBP1. Moreover, leptin-induced STAT3 phosphorylation was hindered by DHAA. These results suggested that increases in the levels of DHAA might be harmful to neurons, contributing to defective leptin-responsive signaling.

Unique pharmacological property of ISRIB in inhibition of Aß-induced neuronal cell death.

A pharmacological approach to ameliorate Alzheimer's disease (AD) has not yet been established. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacological characteristics of the recently identified memory-enhancing compound, ISRIB for the amelioration of AD. ISRIB potently attenuated amyloid ß-induced neuronal cell death at concentrations of 12.5-25 nM, but did not inhibit amyloid ß production in the HEK293T cell line expressing the amyloid precursor protein (APP). These results suggest that ISRIB possesses the unique pharmacological property of attenuating amyloid ß-induced neuronal cell death without affecting amyloid ß production.

Possible involvement of 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14) -prostaglandin J2 in the development of leptin resistance.

Obesity is a worldwide health problem that urgently needs to be solved. Leptin is an anti-obesity hormone that activates satiety signals to the brain. Evidence to suggest that leptin resistance is involved in the development of obesity is increasing; however, the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. We herein demonstrated that 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14) -prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2 ) was involved in the development of leptin resistance. A treatment with 15d-PGJ2 inhibited the leptin-induced activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in neuronal cells (SH-SY5Y-Ob-Rb cells). Furthermore, the intracerebroventricular administration of 15d-PGJ2 reversed the inhibitory effects of leptin on food intake in rats. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) antagonist, GW9662, slightly reversed the inhibitory effects of 15d-PGJ2 on the leptin-induced activation of STAT3 in neuronal cells. The PPAR-γ agonist, rosiglitazone, also inhibited leptin-induced STAT3 phosphorylation. Therefore, the inhibitory effects of 15d-PGJ2 may be mediated through PPAR-γ. On the other hand, 15d-PGJ2 -induced leptin resistance may not be mediated by endoplasmic reticulum stress or suppressor of cytokine signaling 3. The results of the present study suggest that 15d-PGJ2 is a novel factor for the development of leptin resistance in obesity. Leptin resistance, an insensitivity to the actions of leptin, is involved in the development of obesity. Here, we found 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14) -prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2 ) may be involved in the development of leptin resistance. The present results suggest that the 15d-PGJ2 may be a novel factor for the development of leptin resistance in obesity. 15d-PGJ2 , 15-Deoxy-Δ(12,14) -prostaglandin J2; STAT3, signal tranducer and activator of transcription 3.

Synthesis of a peptide that can translocate to the endoplasmic reticulum.

The accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) leads to ER stress, which has been implicated in the development of diseases. In the present study, we synthesized a peptide that entered cells and translocated to the ER. This peptide possessed fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), HIV-TAT, mini-αA-crystallin, and KDEL sequences. We demonstrated that this peptide entered cells and translocated to the ER. Time course experiments revealed that this peptide existed in the ER of cos-7 cells for 16 h. Furthermore, we detected the full-length peptide in cells by fluorescent immunostaining followed by SDS-PAGE. The peptide also entered glial and neuronal cells. These results suggest that this peptide has the ability to enter cells and exert chaperone activity at the ER, and provide an insight into the development of new drugs.

Therapeutic potential of flurbiprofen against obesity in mice.

Obesity is associated with several diseases including diabetes, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Therefore, anti-obesity drugs have the potential to prevent these diseases. In the present study, we demonstrated that flurbiprofen, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), exhibited therapeutic potency against obesity. Mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 months, followed by a normal-chow diet (NCD). The flurbiprofen treatment simultaneously administered. Although body weight was significantly decreased in flurbiprofen-treated mice, growth was not affected. Flurbiprofen also reduced the HFD-induced accumulation of visceral fat. Leptin resistance, which is characterized by insensitivity to the anti-obesity hormone leptin, is known to be involved in the development of obesity. We found that one of the possible mechanisms underlying the anti-obesity effects of flurbiprofen may have been mediated through the attenuation of leptin resistance, because the high circulating levels of leptin in HFD-fed mice were decreased in flurbiprofen-treated mice. Therefore, flurbiprofen may exhibit therapeutic potential against obesity by reducing leptin resistance.

TERT attenuated ER stress-induced cell death.

Tumor cells are frequently encountered in nutrient-deprived areas, though the mechanisms underlying their survival are unclear. In the present study, we found that depriving cells of glucose caused endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) in a breast cancer cells line, MCF-7, and that specific activation of ER stress increased telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) expression. TERT expression would function in counteracting against the stress because over-expression of TERT diminished ER stress-induced cell death. Therefore, the results provide evidence for the underlying mechanisms of tumor progression in stressed conditions, highlighting that ER stress induces TERT expression to withstand environmental stress, a mechanism which we termed the "ER stress-TERT axis".

Midnolin, a Genetic Risk Factor for Parkinson's Disease, Promotes Neurite Outgrowth Accompanied by Early Growth Response 1 Activation in PC12 Cells.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related progressive neurodegenerative disease. Previously, we identified midnolin (MIDN) as a genetic risk factor for PD. Although MIDN copy number loss increases the risk of PD, the molecular function of MIDN remains unclear. To investigate the role of MIDN in PD, we established monoclonal Midn knockout (KO) PC12 cell models. Midn KO inhibited neurite outgrowth and neurofilament light chain (Nefl) gene expression. Although MIDN is mainly localized in the nucleus, it does not encode DNA-binding domains. We therefore hypothesized that MIDN might bind to certain transcription factors and regulate gene expression. Of the candidate transcription factors, we focused on early growth response 1 (EGR1) because it is required for neurite outgrowth and its target genes are downregulated by Midn KO. An interaction between MIDN and EGR1 was confirmed by immunoprecipitation. Surprisingly, although EGR1 protein levels were significantly increased in Midn KO cells, the binding of EGR1 to the Nefl promoter and resulting transcriptional activity were downregulated as measured by luciferase assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Overall, we identified the MIDN-dependent regulation of EGR1 function. This mechanism may be an underlying reason for the neurite outgrowth defects of Midn KO PC12 cells.

ER stress-mediated regulation of immune function under glucose-deprived condition in glial cells: up- and down-regulation of PGE2 + IFNγ-induced IL-6 and iNOS expressions.

Glucose metabolism plays central role in maintaining brain function. Under ischemic condition, where glucose levels were reduced, glial cells induce pro-inflammatory cytokine production. In the present study, we found prostaglandin (PG) E2+interferon (IFN) γ-induced interleukin (IL)-6 production was enhanced under glucose-deprived condition in the primary cultured glial cells. On the other hand, to our surprise, we found that PGE2+IFNγ-induced iNOS expression was attenuated under glucose-deprived condition. These dual effects would be mediated through endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, because we observed (1) up-regulation of GRP78 and CHOP under glucose-deprived condition, which was inhibited by chemical chaperon TMAO, and (2) treatment with TMAO inhibited IL-6 production under glucose-deprived condition. By activating theses responses glial cells may protect neurons because we observed increased neuronal cell viability in the immune-activated glial cell conditioned medium. Overall, our results suggest a link between ER stress and immune reactions under glucose-deprived condition in the glial cells.

Tributyltin-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and its Ca(2+)-mediated mechanism.

Organotin compounds, especially tributyltin chloride (TBT), have been widely used in antifouling paints for marine vessels, but exhibit various toxicities in mammals. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a multifunctional organelle that controls post-translational modification and intracellular Ca(2+) signaling. When the capacity of the quality control system of ER is exceeded under stress including ER Ca(2+) homeostasis disruption, ER functions are impaired and unfolded proteins are accumulated in ER lumen, which is called ER stress. Here, we examined whether TBT causes ER stress in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. We found that 700nM TBT induced ER stress markers such as CHOP, GRP78, spliced XBP1 mRNA and phosphorylated eIF2α. TBT also decreased the cell viability both concentration- and time-dependently. Dibutyltin and monobutyltin did not induce ER stress markers. We hypothesized that TBT induces ER stress via Ca(2+) depletion, and to test this idea, we examined the effect of TBT on intracellular Ca(2+) concentration using fura-2 AM, a Ca(2+) fluorescent probe. TBT increased intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in a TBT-concentration-dependent manner, and Ca(2+) increase in 700nM TBT was mainly blocked by 50µM dantrolene, a ryanodine receptor antagonist (about 70% inhibition). Dantrolene also partially but significantly inhibited TBT-induced GRP78 expression and cell death. These results suggest that TBT increases intracellular Ca(2+) concentration by releasing Ca(2+) from ER, thereby causing ER stress.

Recent progress on action and regulation of anorexigenic adipokine leptin.

Organismal energy balance is controlled by inter-tissue communication mediated by the nervous system and hormones, the disruption of which causes metabolic syndrome exemplified by diabetes and obesity. Fat-storing adipose tissue, especially those located in subcutaneous white adipose tissue, secretes leptin in a proportion of fat mass, inhibiting the accumulation of organismal fat by suppressing appetite and promoting energy expenditure. With a prevalence of obesity that exhibits hyperleptinemia, most of the investigation on leptin has been focused on how it works and how it does not, which is expected to be a clue for treating obesity. In contrast, how it is synthesized, transported, and excreted, all of which are relevant to the homeostasis of blood leptin concentration, are not much understood. Of note, acute leptin reduction after hyperleptinemia in the context of obesity exhibited a beneficial effect on obesity and insulin sensitivity, indicating that manipulation of circulating leptin level may provide a therapeutic strategy. Technological advances such as "omics" analysis combined with sophisticated gene-engineered mice studies in the past decade enabled a deeper understanding of leptin's action in more detail. Here, we summarize the updated understanding of the action as well as regulation of leptin and point out the emerging direction of research on leptin.

Molecular approaches to the treatment, prophylaxis, and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: endoplasmic reticulum stress and immunological stress in pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, accompanied by neuronal loss and the formation of senile plaques in the brain. Glial cells, such as microglia, have been shown to be activated and induce chronic inflammatory responses in AD brain. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) functions to facilitate protein folding. However, ER stress occurs when cells are exposed to stress. Mounting evidence suggests that ER stress is involved in the pathology of AD. Meanwhile, recent findings suggested crosstalk between ER stress and immune function. However, the mechanisms linking the progression of AD with ER and immunological stress are still not clear. In the present paper, we review and discuss recent results regarding the mechanism of AD pathogenesis, focusing on ER stress and immunological stress.

Protective effects of 4-phenylbutyrate derivatives on the neuronal cell death and endoplasmic reticulum stress.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress responses play an important role in neurodegenerative diseases. Sodium 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) is a terminal aromatic substituted fatty acid that has been used for the treatment of urea cycle disorders. 4-PBA possesses in vitro chemical chaperone activity and reduces the accumulation of Parkin-associated endothelin receptor-like receptor (Pael-R), which is involved in autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (AR-JP). In this study, we show that terminal aromatic substituted fatty acids, including 3-phenylpropionate (3-PPA), 4-PBA, 5-phenylvaleric acid, and 6-phenylhexanoic acid, prevented the aggregation of lactalbumin and bovine serum albumin. Aggregation inhibition increased relative to the number of carbons in the fatty acids. Moreover, these compounds protected cells against ER stress-induced neuronal cell death. The cytoprotective effect correlated with the in vitro chemical chaperone activity. Similarly, cell viability decreased on treatment with tunicamycin, an ER stress inducer, and was dependent on the number of carbons in the fatty acids. Moreover, the expression of glucose-regulated proteins 94 and 78 (GRP94, 78) decreased according to the number of carbons in the fatty acids. Furthermore, we investigated the effects of these compounds on the accumulation of Pael-R in neuroblastoma cells. 3-PPA and 4-PBA significantly suppressed neuronal cell death caused by ER stress induced by the overexpression of Pael-R. Overexpressed Pael-R accumulated in the ER of cells. With 3-PPA and 4-PBA treatment, the localization of the overexpressed Pael-R shifted away from the ER to the cytoplasmic membrane. These results suggest that terminal aromatic substituted fatty acids are potential candidates for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.