Protecting Caribbean patients diagnosed with cancer from compounding disasters.

Caribbean small island developing states are becoming increasingly vulnerable to compounding disasters, prominently featuring climate-related hazards and pandemic diseases, which exacerbate existing barriers to cancer control in the region. We describe the complexities of cancer prevention and control efforts throughout the Caribbean small island developing states, including the unique challenges of people diagnosed with cancer in the region. We highlight potential solutions and strategies that concurrently address disaster adaptation and cancer control. Because Caribbean small island developing states are affected first and worst by the hazards of compounding disasters, the innovative solutions developed in the region are relevant for climate mitigation, disaster adaptation, and cancer control efforts globally. In the age of complex and cascading disaster scenarios, developing strategies to mitigate their effect on the cancer control continuum, and protecting the health and safety of people diagnosed with cancer from extreme events become increasingly urgent. The equitable development of such strategies relies on collaborative efforts among professionals whose diverse expertise from complementary fields infuses the local community perspective while focusing on implementing solutions.

Regional and global impacts of the 2007 Port-of-Spain Declaration on noncommunicable diseases.

OBJECTIVE: To assess how well Caribbean regional institutions (RIs) met their commitments from the 2007 Port-of-Spain Summit (POSS) declaration on noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), and evaluate the POSS impact on the United Nations High-level Meeting (HLM) on NCDs in 2011 (2011 HLM), HLM NCD review in 2014 (2014 HLM), World Health Organization's 2025 NCD targets (2025 WHO), and 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agreed upon in 2015. METHODS: This study uses a method developed by the University of Toronto's Global Governance Program to measure institutions' compliance with commitments from a summit and the match with commitments from earlier summits. This approach was supplemented using data from published literature, primary documents, and semistructured key informant interviews to detail how and why Caribbean RIs met the 2007 POSS commitments, how the 2007 POSS commitments led to compliance, and how the 2007 POSS influenced international NCD commitments. RESULTS: Caribbean RIs implemented the 2007 POSS commitments better when they had more public legitimacy, when their missions aligned with those commitments, and when more resources were available to them. Implementation constraints arose from multiple, sometimes competing, interests of the decision-making and national implementing bodies of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Internationally, the early, expanding efforts of the POSS pioneers had an initially important but subsequently diminishing impact on the HLMs. CONCLUSIONS: For the Caribbean region, the Caribbean Public Health Agency should be funded to lead strengthened Caribbean RIs in coordinated action on NCDs. At the international level, the United Nations should embed NCDs in a "whole-of-global-governance" approach, monitor implementation annually, foster transregional partnerships on NCD-related themes, engage civil society, and support regular regional and global summits to enhance implementation and improvement, aimed at future HLMs on NCDs, the 2025 WHO targets, and the SDG NCD targets.

Prolonged Zika virus viremia in a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome in Trinidad and Tobago.

An emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus, Zika virus (ZIKV) is a significant public health concern because of the syndromes associated with the infection. In addition, ZIKV is considered a major problem due to large-scale spread of the disease and the possible clinical complications for the central nervous system, especially Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly. Since the introduction of ZIKV in the Caribbean, molecular detection of the viral RNA has been utilized as a more specific and sensitive approach to demonstrating acute infection. However, it is generally accepted that the virus has a short viremic period, generally less than 5 days. Serologic testing has the inconvenience of strong cross-reactivity among flaviviruses, such as dengue and yellow fever. As part of the laboratory surveillance activities for Zika and other arboviruses at the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2016 a sample from a male who was clinically diagnosed with GBS tested positive for Zika virus by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The serum sample had been taken on day 21 after the onset of symptoms. The case had initially been characterized as a typical ZIKV infection (mild fever with a generalized maculopapular rash). Later, weakness of limbs and other peripheral neurological symptoms appeared. Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) showed that the sample was negative for IgM antibodies against Zika, Chikungunya, and dengue viruses. The plaque reduction neutralization test was positive for ZIKV. This indicated parallel development of viremia and immune response against ZIKV. Recent reports have demonstrated a longer duration of the viremia in ZIKV infections. However, our report is the first one that links the infection with extended viremia and the development in parallel of a GBS case.

Zika virus outbreak in 19 English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean countries and territories, 2015-2016.

Surveillance for Zika virus was enhanced in the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean following emergence of the virus in Brazil in May 2015. The first autochthonous case of Zika in the Caribbean was reported by Suriname in November 2015, and the virus subsequently spread rapidly throughout the region. Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA) member states (CMS) reported clinically suspected cases of Zika and submitted serum specimens to the agency for laboratory investigation. A patient was considered a confirmed case if Zika virus was detected by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay or serological test. Due to the documented link between 1) Zika virus and congenital syndrome, and 2) Zika virus and Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), data on both of these disease outcomes were extracted from country and regional reports. This special report describes the epidemiology of laboratory-confirmed Zika cases reported to CARPHA, including links with both congenital syndrome and GBS, for 19 English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean countries during the epidemic period (1 October 2015-29 December 2016).

Tras la aparición del virus del Zika en Brasil en mayo del 2015, los países de habla inglesa y holandesa reforzaron la vigilancia de este virus. El primer caso autóctono de infección por el virus del Zika en el Caribe fue notificado por Suriname en noviembre del 2015 y desde entonces el virus se ha propagado rápidamente en toda el área. Los Estados Miembros del Organismo de Salud Pública del Caribe (CARPHA, por su sigla en inglés) notificaron casos presuntos de infección por el virus detectados clínicamente y entregaron al Organismo muestras de suero para que se llevaran a cabo las pruebas de laboratorio. Se consideró que un paciente era un caso confirmado si se detectaba el virus del Zika mediante la prueba serológica de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con retrotranscriptasa en tiempo real. Habida cuenta de la relación documentada entre 1) el virus del Zika y el síndrome congénito y 2) el virus del Zika y el síndrome de Guillain Barré, se buscaron datos sobre los resultados relativos a ambas enfermedades en los informes nacionales y regionales. En este informe especial se describen las características epidemiológicas de los casos de infección por el virus del Zika notificados al CARPHA, confirmados mediante pruebas de laboratorio, incluidos los vínculos con el síndrome congénito y el síndrome de Guillain Barré, en 19 países del Caribe de habla inglesa y holandesa en el período de la epidemia (del 1 de octubre del 2015 al 29 de diciembre del 2016).

A vigilância do zika foi melhorada nos países e territórios do Caribe de língua inglesa e holandesa com a emergência da doença no Brasil em maio de 2015. O primeiro caso autóctone de zika no Caribe foi registrado no Suriname em novembro de 2015 e, desde então, o vírus tem se propagado rapidamente em toda a região. Os Estados Membros da Agência de Saúde Pública do Caribe (CARPHA) notificaram casos com suspeita clínica de zika e enviaram amostras séricas para análise laboratorial. Considerou-se caso confirmado quando houve a detecção do vírus zika com a técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase da transcrição reversa em tempo real (PCR-RT) ou com teste sorológico. Devido à associação comprovada entre o vírus zika e a síndrome congênita e o vírus zika e a síndrome de Guillain­Barré (SGB), foram obtidos dados relativos a estes desfechos dos registros regionais e dos países. Este informe especial faz uma descrição da epidemiologia dos casos de zika com confirmação laboratorial notificados à CARPHA, incluindo casos associados à síndrome congênita e SGB, nos 19 países do Caribe de língua inglesa e holandesa no período epidêmico (de 1o de outubro de 2015 a 29 de dezembro de 2016).

A multistakeholder platform to promote health and prevent noncommunicable diseases in the region of the Americas: the Pan American Health Organization partners forum for action.

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and obesity are the most serious health problem facing the countries of the Americas in terms of avoidable deaths as well as costs to governments, families, and business. The main causes are ageing of the population, and widespread risks such as tobacco use, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and harmful use of alcohol, linked to major changes in the way we live and work, to public policies, cultural norms, and private sector forces. Underlying determinants are globalization, urbanization, poverty, education, gender, ethnicity, and access to health services. Yet, approximately 80% of cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and 40% of cancer, are preventable through a range of cost-effective population and individual measures for those at high risk of living with NCDs. However, the multisectoral nature of NCDs requires a cross-sector response to succeed. Several governments have commenced intersectoral efforts, and civil society and private sector also have many initiatives, but the responses are fragmented and skewed. The Partners Forum is being launched by the Pan American Health Organization in collaboration with the World Economic Forum and a set of partners including member states, partners in civil society, and partners in the private sector, as a multisector platform to catalyze, recognize, and scale up collaborative action to promote health and prevent and control NCDs at regional, subregional, and country level. The principles of partnership and lessons learned from other partnership experiences are being used in its design.

Raising the priority of chronic noncommunicable diseases in the Caribbean.

The Caribbean's long history of cooperation in health now focuses on noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), given that Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries have the highest NCD burden in the Americas. The heads of government convened a first in the world one-day summit on NCDs, largely due to advocacy by George Alleyne and others, on the health, social, and economic impact of NCDs; the need for upstream multisectoral interventions to address the common, multifactoral risks; and the need for increased global attention to NCDs. Implementation of the NCD Summit Declaration mandates was most effective in larger countries with greater capacity, but countries of all sizes performed well, when they had regional or global support. Progress was limited in regional approaches to food security, labeling, and elimination of trans fats. Inadequate funding stymied several resource-dependent interventions. Monitoring mechanisms were established, but more concrete goals are needed, especially for actions of nonhealth government agencies.

Zika virus outbreak in 19 English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean countries and territories, 2015-2016 / Brote epidémico del virus del Zika en 19 países y territorios del Caribe de habla inglesa y holandesa en el período 2015-2016 / Surto causado pelo vírus zika em 19 países e territórios do Caribe de língua inglesa e holandesa, 2015-2016

ABSTRACT Surveillance for Zika virus was enhanced in the English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean following emergence of the virus in Brazil in May 2015. The first autochthonous case of Zika in the Caribbean was reported by Suriname in November 2015, and the virus subsequently spread rapidly throughout the region. Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA) member states (CMS) reported clinically suspected cases of Zika and submitted serum specimens to the agency for laboratory investigation. A patient was considered a confirmed case if Zika virus was detected by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay or serological test. Due to the documented link between 1) Zika virus and congenital syndrome, and 2) Zika virus and Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), data on both of these disease outcomes were extracted from country and regional reports. This special report describes the epidemiology of laboratory-confirmed Zika cases reported to CARPHA, including links with both congenital syndrome and GBS, for 19 English- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean countries during the epidemic period (1 October 2015-29 December 2016).

RESUMEN Tras la aparición del virus del Zika en Brasil en mayo del 2015, los países de habla inglesa y holandesa reforzaron la vigilancia de este virus. El primer caso autóctono de infección por el virus del Zika en el Caribe fue notificado por Suriname en noviembre del 2015 y desde entonces el virus se ha propagado rápidamente en toda el área. Los Estados Miembros del Organismo de Salud Pública del Caribe (CARPHA, por su sigla en inglés) notificaron casos presuntos de infección por el virus detectados clínicamente y entregaron al Organismo muestras de suero para que se llevaran a cabo las pruebas de laboratorio. Se consideró que un paciente era un caso confirmado si se detectaba el virus del Zika mediante la prueba serológica de la reacción en cadena de la polimerasa con retrotranscriptasa en tiempo real. Habida cuenta de la relación documentada entre 1) el virus del Zika y el síndrome congénito y 2) el virus del Zika y el síndrome de Guillain Barré, se buscaron datos sobre los resultados relativos a ambas enfermedades en los informes nacionales y regionales. En este informe especial se describen las características epidemiológicas de los casos de infección por el virus del Zika notificados al CARPHA, confirmados mediante pruebas de laboratorio, incluidos los vínculos con el síndrome congénito y el síndrome de Guillain Barré, en 19 países del Caribe de habla inglesa y holandesa en el período de la epidemia (del 1 de octubre del 2015 al 29 de diciembre del 2016).

RESUMO A vigilância do zika foi melhorada nos países e territórios do Caribe de língua inglesa e holandesa com a emergência da doença no Brasil em maio de 2015. O primeiro caso autóctone de zika no Caribe foi registrado no Suriname em novembro de 2015 e, desde então, o vírus tem se propagado rapidamente em toda a região. Os Estados Membros da Agência de Saúde Pública do Caribe (CARPHA) notificaram casos com suspeita clínica de zika e enviaram amostras séricas para análise laboratorial. Considerou-se caso confirmado quando houve a detecção do vírus zika com a técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase da transcrição reversa em tempo real (PCR-RT) ou com teste sorológico. Devido à associação comprovada entre o vírus zika e a síndrome congênita e o vírus zika e a síndrome de Guillain-Barré (SGB), foram obtidos dados relativos a estes desfechos dos registros regionais e dos países. Este informe especial faz uma descrição da epidemiologia dos casos de zika com confirmação laboratorial notificados à CARPHA, incluindo casos associados à síndrome congênita e SGB, nos 19 países do Caribe de língua inglesa e holandesa no período epidêmico (de 1o de outubro de 2015 a 29 de dezembro de 2016).

NCD Prevention and Control in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Regional Approach to Policy and Program Development.

This article describes efforts from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) that have supported progress in country-driven planning and implementing of actions to address noncommunicable diseases (NCD), as well as mechanisms that PAHO has supported for countries in the Americas to share and build on each other's experiences. The Regional Strategy and Plan of Action for NCD, approved by all member states in 2006, is the major frame for this work. The strategy has 4 lines of action: policy and advocacy; surveillance; health promotion and disease prevention; and integrated management of NCD and risk factors. Cross-cutting strategies include resource mobilization, communication, training, and networks and partnerships. The strategy is operationalized through biannual work plans for which countries link and commit to achieving specific objectives. PAHO then provides technical support toward achieving these plans, and countries report progress annually. The CARMEN (Collaborative Action for Risk Factor Prevention and Effective Management of NCD [Conjunto de Acciones para la Reducción y el Manejo de las Enfermedades No transmisibles]) Network provides a major platform for sharing, and the multisector Pan American Forum for Action on NCD has been launched to extend the network to include business and civil society. PAHO also supported civil society capacity building. Almost all member states have made substantial progress in implementing their national chronic disease programs, in most instances reporting exceeding the indicators of the strategic plan related to chronic diseases. From the Caribbean countries, leadership has been provided to achieve the historic UN High-Level Meeting on NCD in September 2011. The region is on track to meet the mortality reduction target set for 2013, though much remains to be done to further increase awareness of and resources for scaling up NCD prevention and control programs, given the huge health and economic burden, increasing costs, and worrying increases of some conditions such as obesity. Major challenges include getting NCD into social protection packages, building the human resource capacity, strengthening surveillance, achieving true intersectoral and multipartner action, given that most determinants of the epidemic lie outside the health sector, and increasing investment in prevention.

Prolonged Zika virus viremia in a patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome in Trinidad and Tobago / Viremia prolongada por el virus del Zika en un paciente con síndrome de Guillain-Barré en Trinidad y Tabago / Viremia prolongada do vírus zika em paciente com síndrome de Guillain-Barré em Trinidad e Tobago

ABSTRACT An emerging mosquito-borne flavivirus, Zika virus (ZIKV) is a significant public health concern because of the syndromes associated with the infection. In addition, ZIKV is considered a major problem due to large-scale spread of the disease and the possible clinical complications for the central nervous system, especially Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) and microcephaly. Since the introduction of ZIKV in the Caribbean, molecular detection of the viral RNA has been utilized as a more specific and sensitive approach to demonstrating acute infection. However, it is generally accepted that the virus has a short viremic period, generally less than 5 days. Serologic testing has the inconvenience of strong cross-reactivity among flaviviruses, such as dengue and yellow fever. As part of the laboratory surveillance activities for Zika and other arboviruses at the Caribbean Public Health Agency, in 2016 a sample from a male who was clinically diagnosed with GBS tested positive for Zika virus by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). The serum sample had been taken on day 21 after the onset of symptoms. The case had initially been characterized as a typical ZIKV infection (mild fever with a generalized maculopapular rash). Later, weakness of limbs and other peripheral neurological symptoms appeared. Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) showed that the sample was negative for IgM antibodies against Zika, Chikungunya, and dengue viruses. The plaque reduction neutralization test was positive for ZIKV. This indicated parallel development of viremia and immune response against ZIKV. Recent reports have demonstrated a longer duration of the viremia in ZIKV infections. However, our report is the first one that links the infection with extended viremia and the development in parallel of a GBS case.(AU)

RESUMEN El virus del Zika (ZIKV), un flavivirus emergente transmitido por mosquitos, es una inquietud importante en el ámbito de la salud pública por los síndromes asociados con la infección. Además, el ZIKV se considera un problema acuciante debido a la propagación a gran escala de la enfermedad y a las posibles complicaciones clínicas en el sistema nervioso central, en concreto, el síndrome de Guillain-Barré y la microcefalia. Desde que el ZIKV se introdujera en el Caribe, la detección molecular del ARN viral ha sido el método más específico y sensible utilizado para comprobar una infección aguda. Sin embargo, se cree que el virus tiene un período virémico corto, de menos de 5 días en general. La prueba serológica presenta el inconveniente de la fuerte reactividad cruzada entre los flavivirus, como el dengue y la fiebre amarilla. Como parte de las actividades de vigilancia de laboratorio para el Zika y otros arbovirus del Agencia Caribena de Salud Publica, en el 2016 la muestra de un hombre diagnosticado con la enfermedad de Guillain Barré dio positiva para el virus del Zika por medio de una reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tiempo real (rRT-RCP). La muestra de suero se había tomado en el día 21 después de la aparición de los síntomas. En un principio, el caso se calificó como una infección por ZIKV típica (fiebre leve con una erupción maculopapular generalizada). Posteriormente, apareció la debilidad de los miembros y otros síntomas neurológicos periféricos. La prueba de inmunoadsorción enzimática (ELISA) fue negativa para los anticuerpos de tipo IgM contra los virus del Zika, el chikunguña y el dengue. La prueba de neutralización por reducción del número de placas dio positivo para el ZIKV, lo que probó que paralelamente se había desarrollado una respuesta virémica e inmune contra el ZIKV. En informes recientes se ha demostrado que en las infecciones de ZIKV el periodo virémico es más largo. Sin embargo, nuestro informe es de los primeros que relaciona un periodo virémico prolongado con el desarrollo paralelo del síndrome de Guillain-Barré.(AU)

RESUMO O vírus zika é um flavivírus emergente transmitido por mosquitos e tem sido motivo de grande preocupação em saúde pública por causa das síndromes associadas à infecção. É também considerado um importante problema devido à propagação em grande escala e possíveis complicações clínicas no sistema nervoso central decorrentes da infecção, sobretudo síndrome de Guillain-Barré e microcefalia. Desde a introdução do vírus zika no Caribe, a detecção molecular do RNA viral tem sido usada como método mais específico e sensível para demonstrar infecção aguda. Porém, admite-se em geral que o vírus tem um curto período virêmico, inferior a 5 dias. O teste sorológico tem o inconveniente de produzir intensa reação cruzada com outros flavivírus, como os vírus da dengue e febre amarela. Como parte da vigilância laboratorial do vírus zika e outros arbovírus pela Agência de Saúde Pública do Caribe, em 2016, foi examinada uma amostra de um paciente do sexo masculino com diagnóstico clínico de síndrome de Guillain-Barré e o resultado foi positivo para o vírus zika com a técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase em tempo real. A amostra sérica havia sido coletada no dia 21 após o início dos sintomas. O caso foi inicialmente descrito como infecção típica pelo vírus zika (febre baixa com erupção cutânea maculopapular generalizada) e, posteriormente, o paciente apresentou fraqueza dos membros e outros sintomas neurológicos periféricos. A amostra foi testada com a técnica de imunoensaio enzimático (ELISA) e foi negativa para anticorpos da classe IgM contra o zika vírus, vírus chikungunya e vírus da dengue. O teste de neutralização por redução de placas foi positivo para o vírus zika, indicando aumento em paralelo da viremia e resposta imunológica ao vírus. Informes recentes têm demonstrado viremia de duração mais prolongada em infecções por vírus zika. Porém, este é o primeiro relato que associa a infecção com viremia prolongada ao surgimento em paralelo da síndrome de Guillain-Barré.(AU)

Raising the priority of chronic noncommunicable diseases in the Caribbean / Aumentar la prioridad de las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles en el Caribe

The Caribbean's long history of cooperation in health now focuses on noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), given that Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries have the highest NCD burden in the Americas. The heads of government convened a first in the world one-day summit on NCDs, largely due to advocacy by George Alleyne and others, on the health, social, and economic impact of NCDs; the need for upstream multisectoral interventions to address the common, multifactoral risks; and the need for increased global attention to NCDs. Implementation of the NCD Summit Declaration mandates was most effective in larger countries with greater capacity, but countries of all sizes performed well, when they had regional or global support. Progress was limited in regional approaches to food security, labeling, and elimination of trans fats. Inadequate funding stymied several resource-dependent interventions. Monitoring mechanisms were established, but more concrete goals are needed, especially for actions of nonhealth government agencies.

La larga trayectoria de cooperación de los países del Caribe en materia de salud se centra ahora en las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT), puesto que los países integrantes de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM) soportan la mayor carga de estas enfermedades en la Región de las Américas. Los jefes de gobierno convocaron una cumbre de un día, la primera del mundo, sobre las ENT, en gran parte gracias a la tarea de concientización llevada a cabo por George Alleyne y otros, con objeto de tratar las repercusiones sanitarias, sociales y económicas de las ENT; la necesidad de intervenciones multisectoriales tempranas para abordar los riesgos comunes y multifactoriales; y la necesidad de que se conceda mayor atención a las ENT a escala mundial. La ejecución de los mandatos de la Declaración de la Cumbre sobre las ENT fue más eficaz en los países más grandes y con mayor capacidad, pero países de distintos tamaños actuaron satisfactoriamente cuando contaron con la ayuda regional o mundial. En los enfoques regionales, el progreso se limitó a la seguridad alimentaria, la rotulación y la eliminación de las grasas trans. El financiamiento insuficiente obstaculizó diversas intervenciones que dependían del aporte de recursos. Se establecieron mecanismos de vigilancia, pero es preciso establecer metas más concretas, especialmente en lo referente a las actividades de los organismos gubernamentales de ámbitos ajenos a la salud.

Sexually transmitted infection service use and risk factors for HIV infection among female sex workers in Georgetown, Guyana.

OBJECTIVES: To identify risk factors for HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) service use patterns among female sex workers in Georgetown, Guyana. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 299 female commercial sex workers. METHODS: HIV prevalence was assessed using an oral fluid test, and sociodemographic and behavioral data by interview administered by sex workers and women's group members. RESULTS: HIV prevalence was 30.6% [95% confidence interval (CI) 24.9-36.3]. Multivariate logistic regression found a significant association between HIV infection and having a vaginal ulcer in the last 12 months [odds ratio (OR) 4.0, CI 1.4-12.0]. Having had a vaginal ulcer was associated with use of cocaine. Multivariate logistic regression on STI service use variables found significant associations between HIV infection and getting condoms from public sector STI services (OR 3.1, CI 1.6-5.8), not going back for HIV test results (OR 3.4, CI 1.1-10.1), and last getting tested for HIV more than 6 months ago (OR 2.8, CI 1.3-6.2). CONCLUSIONS: An active program of screening and treatment of ulcerative STIs should be combined with substance abuse services for sex workers (SW). Condom promotion services are reaching SW at high risk, but HIV stigma may prevent SW at high risk from accessing HIV test results.